【Abstract】This paper intends to analyze semantic change from a lexical perspective. It introduces the types of semantic change of words and the forces triggering the change. Through analyzing this， people can gain more awareness of the words they mostly take for granted and have a better understanding of the diachronic change of words meanings.

【Key words】words; semantic change; types; forces

【作者簡(jiǎn)介】楊忠妍（1994.03.01-），女，漢族，山東德州人，山東協(xié)和學(xué)院，助教，碩士，研究方向：外國(guó)語言學(xué)及應(yīng)用語言學(xué)。

I. Introduction

Language is symbolic， so each word serves as a symbol in relation to a specific meaning. （Hu Zhuanglin， 2009） Semantic change refers to the change of meaning of a word. It plays a very important role in increasing the vocabulary of a language. In analyzing the types and causes of semantic change， people can have a general picture about the diachronic change of English words meaning.

II. Types of Semantic Change

Three major types of semantic change of words are broadening， borrowing， and shift.

2.1 Broadening

Semantic broadening also called generalization or extension. It refers to the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or inclusive than its historically earlier denotation.（He Zhaoxiong&Mei Deming， 1999） An example of semantic broadening is the modern use of the word “dog”. In the old days， “dog” had a narrower meaning and was used for a hunting breed only. Then its meaning was broadened to encompass all breeds of canine animals. Its connotative meaning has also been extended in modern casual speech to refer metaphorically to a disliked person.

2.2 Semantic narrowing

Semantic narrowing also called specialization. It is a process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. An example of semantic narrowing that occurred is Old English “hund” （hound）， a word which was once used for any breed of dog; whereas in Modern English the meaning has been narrowed to a particular kind of dog. Likewise， the word “deer” was used earlier to refer to any animal， but its modern reference has been narrowed down to only a specific species. Another example of semantic narrowing is the word “mete”（meat）， which was once used for any kind of food. Todays “meat” has become restricted to the flesh of some specific types of animals.

2.3 Semantic shift

Semantic shift is a process of semantic change in which a word loses its former meaning and acquires a new， sometimes related， meaning. An example of semantic shift is the word “silly”. Quite surprisingly， a “silly” person was a happy person in Old English， and a naive person in Middle English， but has become a foolish person in Modern English. Several hundred years ago， when people claimed to be too “fond”， they did not mean that they like somebody too much， but that they are just too foolish. On the other hand， a “nice” person living a thousand years ago was not necessarily a kind and sweet person， but rather， an ignorant person. When one performed an “immortal” act， it used to be regarded as an uncustomary act， instead of an unethical act.

Ⅲ. The forces triggering semantic change

Coseriu pointed out that the main force of semantic change is that the speaker intends to realize his expressive and communication purpose. Traditionally， the forces triggering semantic changes may be grouped into three points： linguistic forces， socio-cultural forces and mental forces.

3.1 Linguistic forces

3.1.1 Interdependent synonym

Semantic change due to the differentiation of synonyms is a gradual change observed in the course of language history， sometimes， but not necessarily， involving the semantic assimilation of loan words. Consider， for example， the words “time” and “tide”. They used to be synonyms. Then “tide” took on its more limited application to the periodically shifting waters， and “time” alone is used in the general sense.

3.1.2 Fixed context

Fixed context may be regarded as another linguistic factor in semantic change. A typical example is the word “token”. When brought into competition with the loan word “sign”， it became restricted in use to a number of set expressions such as “l(fā)ove token”， “token of respect” and so became specialized in meaning.

3.1.3 Reason of economy

Human tends to omit some redundant words for the reason of economy. Thats so called ellipsis. Due to ellipsis “starve” which originally meant “die” came to substitute the whole phrase “die of hunger”， and also began to mean “suffer from lack of food” and even in colloquial use “to feel hungry”. Moreover as there are many words with transitive and intransitive variants naming cause and result， “starve” came to mean “to cause to perish with hunger”.

3.2 Socio-cultural factors

3.2.1 Society change

Human languages have survived for thousands years. During this long period of time， human languages have undergone many changes because of political， economic， cultural reasons. And the change of word meanings is in accordance with it. For example， the Chinese expression“小姐” was used to refer to the daughter of rich and important families. During the Cultural Revolution， it referred to the young women who do not belong to the revolutionary rank and not to be trusted. When Chinese opened up to the outside world， it gradually became popular again. Its popularity did not live very long however， before it began to mean the lover of rich businessmen and corrupt officials. Now it its out of favor again. （Liu Runqing&Wen Xu， 2006）

3.2.2 New notions appear

As the development of the science and technology， new items are created. And these things also need to be named， so we need to create new words to name them， such as “aspirin”， “nylon” and “zipper”. And the development of the Internet also contribute to the meaning change of words. For example， the expression“土豪” in land revolution period meant that a person that owned a lot of lands， however， it means that a person is rich and spends his prodigally nowadays.

3.3 Mental factors

A euphemism is a mild， indirect or less offensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh， unpleasantly direct， or offensive. For example， in many cultures， people avoid using direct words that pertain to death or dying， instead， they say “pass away”， “be no more”， “rest in peace”， “go to his final resting place”， “kick the bucket”etc.

IV. Conclusion

As the society is keeping proceeding constantly， the evolution of English words is still undergoing continuous alteration inevitably. The complexity of such a semantic change in light of lexicon leads to an inescapable fact that it becomes of increasingly great important to have a holistic idea about the causes and processes of the change. For a language learner， it is never too crucial to bear in mind that those changes happening in English word meaning do have huge impacts upon the language learning. Nowadays， with the development and popularity of internet， English has taken in large number of fresh blood to its new vocabulary， which either describes new inventions or newly formed abbreviations， etc. Under such circumstances， it is instrumental and significant to be sensitive to their change， only by doing so， can we polish our English.

References：

[1]何兆熊，梅德明.現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)[M].外語教學(xué)與研究出版社，1999.

[2]胡壯麟.語言學(xué)教程[M].北京大學(xué)出版社，2006.

[3]劉潤(rùn)清，文旭.新編語言學(xué)教程[M].外語教學(xué)與研究出版社，2006.