劉代華 羅宜輝
摘要:腎功能亢進(jìn)(ARC)在臨床廣泛存在,但未引起重視。ARC可導(dǎo)致經(jīng)腎排泄的藥物代謝增快,導(dǎo)致治療失敗,對(duì)于危重癥患者的治療尤為重要。目前對(duì)于ARC的藥物代謝研究較少,本文主要就ARC的流行病學(xué)、發(fā)病機(jī)理,及近年來報(bào)道比較多的萬古霉素、β-內(nèi)酰胺類抗生素、氨基糖胺類和左乙拉西坦做一綜述。
關(guān)鍵詞:腎功能亢進(jìn);萬古霉素;β-內(nèi)酰胺類抗生素;氨基糖苷類;左乙拉西坦;藥物代謝
中圖分類號(hào):R969.1? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?文獻(xiàn)標(biāo)識(shí)碼:A? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1006-1959.2019.09.016
文章編號(hào):1006-1959(2019)09-0048-04
Abstract:Adrenal hyperfunction (ARC) is widespread in the clinic but has not received much attention. ARC can increase the metabolism of drugs excreted by the kidneys, leading to treatment failure, which is especially important for the treatment of critically ill patients. At present, there are few studies on drug metabolism of ARC. This article mainly focuses on the epidemiology, pathogenesis of ARC, and more recently reported vancomycin, β-lactam antibiotics, aminoglycosides and levetiracetam. Do a review.
Key words:Hyperkalemia;Vancomycin;β-lactam antibiotics;Aminoglycosides;Levetiracetam;Drug metabolism
腎功能亢進(jìn)(augmented renal clearance,ARC)在重癥患者中普遍存在,一般指肌酐清除率大于130 ml/(min·1.73m2),以8~24 h尿肌酐排出較以血肌酐估算更能準(zhǔn)確預(yù)測(cè)ARC。ARC的高危因素包括年齡<50歲、男性、近期有創(chuàng)傷病史、較低的危重病嚴(yán)重程度評(píng)分。ARC使經(jīng)腎排泄的藥物排出增加,對(duì)存在ARC的患者給予正常劑量的藥物往往導(dǎo)致治療失敗,臨床需引起足夠的重視。
1 ARC的定義、流行病學(xué)及病理生理
ARC指腎臟高濾過狀態(tài),由于腎臟清除能力增加,可能導(dǎo)致經(jīng)腎排的藥物清除增加從而導(dǎo)致治療的失敗,該現(xiàn)象在ICU患者中比較常見。臨床常用肌酐清除率(creatinine clearance,CrCl)來評(píng)估患者是否存在ARC,但對(duì)于折點(diǎn)仍存在爭(zhēng)議,目前普遍將患者CrCl>130 ml/(min·1.73m2)認(rèn)為存在ARC[1-3],但也有研究將折點(diǎn)定為CrCl>120 ml/(min·1.73m2)[4,5]或CrCl>160 ml/(min·1.73m2)[6]。
ARC雖然在臨床中普遍存在,但在臨床工作中經(jīng)常被忽略,報(bào)道的發(fā)病率為14%~80%[7]。目前對(duì)ARC的機(jī)制認(rèn)識(shí)仍有限,認(rèn)為是機(jī)體對(duì)損傷的一種反應(yīng),體溫、腦自身調(diào)節(jié)、全身高動(dòng)力狀態(tài)可能與ARC有關(guān)[8]。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)急性炎癥可導(dǎo)致體溫升高,從而血管通透性和腎血流量增加,導(dǎo)致ARC[9];正常體溫患者(中位體溫=37.2℃)較低體溫(中位體溫=34℃)患者對(duì)萬古霉素的清除率高[10]。腦損傷也會(huì)導(dǎo)致ARC,通過對(duì)創(chuàng)傷性腦損傷患者的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),腦創(chuàng)傷后的自動(dòng)調(diào)節(jié)能力減低及心鈉素(atrial natriuretic peptide,ANP)升高都與ARC有關(guān)[6]。系統(tǒng)炎性反應(yīng)導(dǎo)致的外周血管阻力減少、心輸出量增加,液體治療,血管活性藥物及強(qiáng)心藥物的使用,導(dǎo)致全身的高動(dòng)力狀態(tài),都可導(dǎo)致ARC[11]。雖然有很多關(guān)于ARC的研究,但其確切的機(jī)制仍不清楚。
2 ARC的危險(xiǎn)因素和評(píng)估方法
ARC更易發(fā)生于年輕(<50歲)、男性、近期有創(chuàng)傷史、較低的疾病評(píng)分(如SOFA、SAPS II、 APACHEⅡ評(píng)分等)的患者[12,13]。另外Hirai K等研究發(fā)現(xiàn)中性粒細(xì)胞減少伴發(fā)熱是兒童癌癥患者發(fā)生ARC的獨(dú)立危險(xiǎn)因素[6]。
為更好的預(yù)測(cè)ARC的發(fā)生,Baptista JP等[14]通過對(duì)ICU患者的研究,采用尿肌酐>45 mg/ml、年齡<65周歲可很好的預(yù)測(cè)ARC的發(fā)生(敏感度60%,特異度88%);如增加BUN<7 mmol/L,可將特異度提高至95%。有研究采用年齡<50周歲、近期有創(chuàng)傷史、SOFA評(píng)分≤4分的ARC評(píng)分,其敏感度和特異度分別為100%和71%。Barletta JF等[15]改良了ARC評(píng)分,用于創(chuàng)傷重癥患者的腎功能亢進(jìn)評(píng)分(ARC in trauma intensive care,ARCTIC)。ARCTIC評(píng)分項(xiàng)包括血清肌酐、性別、年齡和SOFA評(píng)分,其精確度和敏感度分別為84%和68%。用ARC或ARCTIC評(píng)分,能盡早發(fā)現(xiàn)患者是否存在ARC,可以更好的選擇抗生素的種類或劑量,提高療效。
盡管危險(xiǎn)因素和預(yù)測(cè)模型能篩查ARC,但真正識(shí)別患者是否發(fā)生ARC需要準(zhǔn)確計(jì)算患者的腎小球?yàn)V過率(glomerular filtration rate,GFR)。菊粉清除被認(rèn)為是測(cè)量GFR的金標(biāo)準(zhǔn),而臨床常用的根據(jù)血清肌酐估算GFR的公式如CrCl、MDRD、簡(jiǎn)化MDRD、CKD-EPI等,因?yàn)檠寮◆麜?huì)受患者身體影響,如肌肉含量、是否截肢、飲食等影響,對(duì)特定人群可能存在過高或過低估算。研究顯示,所有的估算公式都過低估計(jì)ARC患者的腎功能。相比其他估算公式,CG公式能更好的預(yù)測(cè)ARC[16,17]。由于菊粉檢測(cè)腎功能需要注入外源性物質(zhì),一般僅用于試驗(yàn),目前臨床常通過測(cè)量8~24 h尿中肌酐評(píng)估腎功能[18]。
3 ARC患者藥代動(dòng)力學(xué)改變
對(duì)ICU患者而言,因ARC導(dǎo)致的藥動(dòng)學(xué)的改變可能會(huì)直接影響治療效果,特別是對(duì)經(jīng)腎排泄與肌酐清除有直接聯(lián)系的藥物,如氨基糖苷類抗生素、萬古霉素和左乙拉西坦。增加藥物的清除會(huì)導(dǎo)致藥物半衰期縮短(t1/2)、降低最大藥物濃度(Cmax)和藥物曲線下面積(AUC),特別是對(duì)于時(shí)間依賴性和濃度依賴性抗生素來說,藥動(dòng)學(xué)的改變將導(dǎo)致治療失敗。而在藥品說明書和各類指南中均未提及需對(duì)存在ARC患者調(diào)整藥物劑量。對(duì)英格蘭ICU醫(yī)生的調(diào)查顯示,僅15%的醫(yī)生會(huì)對(duì)存在ARC的患者調(diào)整β-內(nèi)酰胺類和萬古霉素劑量[19]。所以我們需要加強(qiáng)對(duì)存在ARC患者藥物劑量進(jìn)行調(diào)整。
3.1萬古霉素? 萬古霉素是糖肽類抗生素,用于治療革蘭氏陽性菌導(dǎo)致的嚴(yán)重感染。它是一個(gè)親水性的藥物,80%~90%以原型經(jīng)腎排泄,藥物排泄量與腎功能密切相關(guān)。通過對(duì)藥動(dòng)學(xué)和藥代學(xué)的研究,建立了以谷濃度替代AUC∶MIC的監(jiān)測(cè)方式,能很好的預(yù)測(cè)臨床療效[20]。但越來越多的證據(jù)表明,在存在ARC的患者中常規(guī)劑量的萬古霉素往往不能達(dá)到有效治療濃度。Campassi ML等[4]研究顯示,存在ARC的患者即使起始劑量給予較高的萬古霉素,用藥后3 d內(nèi)沒有患者谷濃度達(dá)到15~25 mg/L。目前針對(duì)存在ARC患者萬古霉素血藥濃度與臨床療效的研究很少。但研究表明在給藥后48 h內(nèi)萬古霉素谷濃度不能達(dá)到15~25 mg/L,住院患者死亡率較達(dá)標(biāo)患者明顯升高(OR=2.1,P=0.003)[21]。
對(duì)存在ARC的患者,各種萬古霉素的給藥方案被建議或測(cè)試。Vermis K等[5]通過監(jiān)測(cè)萬古霉素谷濃度,對(duì)患者用藥后5 d內(nèi)的給藥劑量進(jìn)行調(diào)整。對(duì)存在ARC和沒有ARC的患者,分別需給予42 mg/(kg·d)和33 mg/(kg·d)的萬古霉素才能達(dá)到目標(biāo)谷濃度。對(duì)CrCl>130 ml/min的患者,作者建議萬古霉素起始劑量為25 mg/kg、日劑量為40 mg/kg。同樣,Minkute R等[22]研究顯示萬古霉素需要44 kg/(kg·d)才能達(dá)到目標(biāo)谷濃度。另外有研究建議采用8 h測(cè)得的肌酐清除率或列線圖調(diào)整給藥劑量,在ARC患者中均能獲得較好的谷濃度達(dá)標(biāo)率。
3.2 β-內(nèi)酰胺類抗生素? β-內(nèi)酰胺類抗生素主要經(jīng)腎排泄,存在ARC對(duì)藥物代謝影響較大。與萬古霉素和氨基糖苷類抗生素不同,臨床醫(yī)生常根據(jù)指南推薦劑量使用,一般不進(jìn)行治療藥物濃度監(jiān)測(cè)。但對(duì)存在ARC的患者,目前沒有相關(guān)的指南推薦劑量,按常規(guī)劑量給藥,常導(dǎo)致治療失敗。
碳青霉烯類抗生素是一類治療多重耐藥菌的廣譜β-內(nèi)酰胺類抗生素,其抗菌活性具有時(shí)間依賴性,T>MIC藥效學(xué)模型能較好地反映其抗菌活性[23]。但多數(shù)研究結(jié)果顯示,存在ARC的患者按常規(guī)劑量給藥難達(dá)到有效治療濃度。Binder L等[24]報(bào)道對(duì)估算GFR>60 ml/min的ICU患者,給與標(biāo)準(zhǔn)劑量的美羅培南(500~1000 mg/8~12 h),隨著清除率增加,導(dǎo)致較低的AUC。Drust A等[25]報(bào)道CrCl>120 ml/min的ICU患者中,2/3的患者需要比目前推薦更高的劑量(8 g/d)才能達(dá)到有效的治療濃度。另外,延長(zhǎng)輸注時(shí)間也可以增加T>MIC、提高治療成功率。Carlier M等采用2個(gè)不同的給藥方案(1 g,q8h,輸注30 min vs 3 h),發(fā)現(xiàn)延長(zhǎng)輸注時(shí)間能提高94%的不存在ARC患者的T>MIC的達(dá)標(biāo)率,而僅61%的存在ARC的患者有改善[26]。多利培南在存在ARC患者的研究也得到類似的結(jié)論,均提示對(duì)存在ARC的患者建議提高給藥劑量[27]。
對(duì)哌拉西林/他唑巴坦在ICU存在ARC患者的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),常規(guī)劑量給藥或延遲輸注時(shí)間也不能很好的達(dá)到有效治療濃度,而需增加給藥劑量。有研究利用蒙特卡洛模擬計(jì)算對(duì)存在ARC的患者給藥劑量需高于FDA的推薦最高劑量,需達(dá)到(36 g/d),但該研究并未評(píng)估其給藥方案的有效性,仍需進(jìn)一步驗(yàn)證[28,29]。
對(duì)ICU存在ARC兒童使用阿莫西林克拉維酸鉀的研究發(fā)現(xiàn),相比25 mg/kg或35 mg/kg q6h的給藥方案,25 mg/kg q4h的給藥方案能更好的使藥物濃度達(dá)標(biāo),取得更好的臨床療效,輸注時(shí)間延長(zhǎng)至1 h比增大給藥劑量更可取[30]。其他β-內(nèi)酰胺類抗菌藥物在ARC患者中的代謝可能同樣存在代謝增快,但研究較少,還需進(jìn)一步研究。
3.3其他藥物? 氨基糖苷類藥物主要經(jīng)腎排泄,通過血清濃度測(cè)定預(yù)測(cè)治療效果。Goboova M等[31]對(duì)存在ARC的患者使用慶大霉素的回顧性研究發(fā)現(xiàn),使用常規(guī)劑量,93%的患者峰濃度未達(dá)有效治療濃度,需要增加給藥劑量。該研究提示對(duì)存在ARC的患者需調(diào)整給藥劑量。
氟喹諾酮類也是經(jīng)腎排泄的藥物。目前推薦劑量對(duì)于正?;蚰I功能受損的患者治療效果的可預(yù)測(cè)性,不需要進(jìn)行治療藥物濃度監(jiān)測(cè)(TDM)。但TDM對(duì)存在ARC的患者需要提高給藥劑量時(shí)仍有必要。比如,CrCl>130 ml/min的患者感染肺炎鏈球菌、銅綠假單胞菌和金黃色葡萄球菌,利用蒙特卡洛模擬推薦的治療劑量為1 g/24 h,而常規(guī)的劑量為0.5~0.75 g/24 h[32]。
除了抗生素,其他藥物在ARC患者中的藥物代謝也有研究,如左乙拉西坦和依諾肝素。左乙拉西坦是一種廣譜抗癲癇藥,主要經(jīng)腎排泄,呈線性代謝。存在ARC的患者左乙拉西坦代謝增快,建議ARC高危患者給與較高劑量(1 g 靜滴 q8h)[33]。依諾肝素經(jīng)肝代謝,10%以原形經(jīng)腎代謝,給藥總量的40%經(jīng)腎排泄。但有報(bào)道ARC會(huì)影響依諾肝素的療效,建議加強(qiáng)對(duì)抗Xa活性的監(jiān)測(cè)[34]。
4總結(jié)
ARC在臨床廣泛存在,可發(fā)生于患者住院的任何時(shí)期,持續(xù)1 d或數(shù)周不等。臨床對(duì)該現(xiàn)象的認(rèn)識(shí)普遍不足,特別是對(duì)于危重癥患者,在疾病早期用藥不足,從而導(dǎo)致治療失敗。目前推薦的診斷方法是測(cè)量患者8~24 h尿肌酐,建議每天監(jiān)測(cè)。盡早識(shí)別高?;颊呤欠翊嬖贏RC,及時(shí)根據(jù)患者腎功能調(diào)整藥物治療方案,經(jīng)腎排泄的藥物盡量選擇高劑量給藥,或者選擇不經(jīng)腎排的藥物,提高藥物治療療效。
參考文獻(xiàn):
[1]Udy AA,Putt MT,Boots RJ,et al.ARC-Augmented renal clearance[J].Curr Pharm Biotechnol,2011,12(12):2020-2029.
[2]Udy AA,Roberts JA,Boots RJ,et al.Augmented renal clearance:Implications forantibacterial dosing inthecritically ill[J].Cli Pharmacokinet,2010,49(1):1-16.
[3]Udy AA,Putt MT,Shanmugathasan S,et al.Augmented renal clearance in the intensive care unit: An illustrative case series[J].Int J Antimicrob Agents,2010,35(6):606-608.
[4]Campassi ML,Gonzalez MC,Masevicius FD,et al.Augmented renal clearance in critically ill patients: Incidence, associated factors and effects on vancomycin treatment[J].Rev Bras TerIntensiv,2014,26(1):13-20.
[5]Vermis K,Steel E,Vandenbroucke J.Prevalence of augmented renal clearance in haematological patientsand the impact on vancomycin dosing[J]. Journal of Oncology Pharmacy Practice,2014(20):7.
[6]Hirai K,Ihara S,Kinae A,et al.Augmented renal clearance inpediatric patients with febril eneutropenia associated with vancomycin clearance[J].Ther Drug Monit,2016,38(3):393-397.
[7]Mahmoud SH,Shen C.Augmented renal clearance in critical illness:an important consideration in drug dosing[J].Pharmaceutics,2017,9(3):E36.
[8]Huttner A,Von Dach E,Renzoni A,et al.Augmented renal clearance,low beta-lactam concentrations and clinical outcomes in the critically ill: An observational prospective cohort study[J].Int J Antimicrob Agents,2015,45(4):385-392.
[9]Georges B,Conil JM,Ruiz S,et al.Ceftazidime dosage regimen in intensive care unit patients: from a population pharmacokinetic approach to clinical practice via Monte Carlo simulations[J]. Br J Clin Pharmacol,2012,73(4):588-596.
[10]Morbitzer KA,Jordan JD,Rhoney DH.Vancomycin pharmacokinetic parameters in patients with acute brain injury undergoing controlled normothermia,therapeutic hypothermia,or pentobarbital infusion[J].Neurocrit Care,2015,22(2):258-264.
[11]Sime FB,Udy AA,Roberts JA.Augmented renal clearance in critically ill patients:Etiology, definition and implications for beta-lactam dose optimization[J].Curr Opin Pharmacol,2015(24): 1-6.
[12]Udy AA,Roberts JA,Shorr AF,et al.Augmented renal clearance in septic and traumatized patients with normal plasma creatinine concentrations: Identifying at-risk patients[J].Crit Care,2013,17(1):R35.
[13]Minville V,Asehnoune K,Ruiz S,et al.Increased creatinine clearance in polytrauma patients with normal serum creatinine: A retrospective observational study[J].Crit Care,2011,15(1):R49.
[14]Baptista JP,Silva N,Costa E,et al.Identification of the critically ill patient with augmented renal clearance: Make do with what you have![J].ESICM,2014,40(Suppl 1):S110.
[15]Barletta JF,Mangram AJ,Byrne M,et al.Identifying augmented renal clearance in trauma patients:Validation of the augmented renal clearance in trauma intensive care (arctic) scoring system[J].J Trauma Acute Care Surg,2017,82(4):665-671.
[16]Carlier M,Dumoulin A,Janssen A,et al.Comparison of different equations to assess glomerular filtration in critically ill patients[J].Intensive Care Med,2015,41(3):427-435.
[17]Sunder S,Jayaraman R,Mahapatra HS,et al.Estimation of renal function in the intensive care unit: The covert concepts brought to light[J].J Intensive Care,2014,2(1):31.
[18]Baptista JP,Udy AA,Sousa E,et al.A comparison of estimates of glomerular filtration in critically ill patients with augmented renal clearance[J].Crit Care,2011,15(3):R139.
[19]Dunning J,Roberts J.Assessment of renal function in dosing antibiotics in septic patients: A survey of current practice within critical care units in england[J].Anaesthesia,2015(70):21.
[20]Rybak MJ.The pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of vancomycin[J].Clin Infect Dis,2006,42(Suppl 1):S35-S39.
[21]Spadaro S,Berselli A,F(xiàn)ogagnolo A,et al.Evaluation of a protocol for vancomycin administration in critically patients with and without kidney dysfunction[J].BMC Anesthesiol, 2015(15):95.
[22]Minkute R,Briedis V,Steponaviciute R,et al.Augmented renal clearance-An evolving risk factor to consider during the treatment with vancomycin[J].J Clin Pharm Ther,2013,38(6): 462-467.
[23]Mouton JW,Touzw DJ,Horrevorts AM,et al.Comparative pharmacokinetics of the carbapenems: Clinical implications[J].Clin Pharmacokinet,2000,39(3):185-201.
[24]Binder L,Schworer H,Hoppe S,et al.Pharmacokinetics of meropenem in critically ill patients with severe infections[J].Ther Drug Monit,2013,35(1):63-70.
[25]Drust A,Troger U,MartensLobenhoffer J,et al.Therapeutic drug monitoring of meropenem is mandatory for critically ill patients with glomerular hyperfiltration[J].Br J Clin Pharmacol, 2011(72):18.
[26]Carlier M,Carrette S,Roberts JA,et al.Meropenem and piperacillin/tazobactam prescribing in critically ill patients: Does augmented renal clearance affect pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic target attainment when extended infusions are used? [J].Crit Care,2013,17(3):R84.
[27]Roberts JA,Lipman J.Optimal doripenem dosing simulations in critically ill nosocomial pneumonia patients with obesity,augmented renal clearance,and decreased bacterial susceptibility[J].Crit Care Med,2013,41(2):489-495.
[28]Huttner A,Von Dach E,Renzoni A,et al.Augmented renal clearance,low beta-lactam concentrations and clinical outcomes in the critically ill: An observational prospective cohort study[J].Int J Antimicrob Agents,2015,45(4):385-392.
[29]Akers KS,Niece KL,Chung KK,et al.Modified augmented renal clearance score predicts rapid piperacillin and tazobactam clearance in critically ill surgery and trauma patients[J].J Trauma Acute Care Surg,2014,77(3 suppl 2):163-170.
[30]De Cock PA,Standing JF,Barker CI,et al.Augmented? renal clearance implies a need for increased amoxicillin-clavulanic acid dosing in critically ill children[J].Antimicrob Agents Chemother,2015,59(11):7027-7035.
[31]Goboova M,Kuzelova M,F(xiàn)azekas T,et al.The impact of therapeutic drug monitoring(TDM) in optimizing dosage regimens of gentamicin in patients with augmented renal clearance[J].Int J Clin Pharm,2016(38):596.
[32]Roberts JA,Cotta MO,Cojutti P,et al.Does critical illness change levofloxacin pharmacokinetics?[J].Antimicrob Agents Chemother,2016,60(3):1459-1463.
[33]May C,Arora S,Parli S,et al.Levetiracetam pharmacokinetics in subarachnoid hemorrhage patients with augmented renal clearance:A monte carlo simulation[J].ACCP,2014(34):e261-e262.
[34]Abdel ENHEM,Abdelhamid MHE,Atteya DAM.Impact of augmented renal clearance on enoxaparin therapy in critically ill patients[J].Egypt J Anaesth,2016,33(1):113-117.
收稿日期:2019-1-12;修回日期:2019-2-1
編輯/肖婷婷
基金項(xiàng)目:廣西壯族自治區(qū)衛(wèi)生廳自籌經(jīng)費(fèi)科研課題(編號(hào):Z2015124)
作者簡(jiǎn)介:劉代華(1978.9-),女,湖南沅江人,碩士,副主任藥師,藥學(xué)部副主任,主要從事臨床藥學(xué)研究