◆Lu Xiaofang (The Foreign Language Department of Chongqing Medical University)

A Cultural Perspective on Chinese Politeness

◆Lu Xiaofang (The Foreign Language Department of Chongqing Medical University)

Politeness is a universal phenomenon，but its actual manifestations and the standards for judgment are culturally different.This paper analyzes the characteristics of Chinese politeness from a cultural perspective.It aims to improve our understanding of Chinese politeness and our knowledge of Chinese traditional culture and undertake interpersonal communication successfully.

Chinese politeness Chinese culture collectivism high power distance

I Introduction

Politeness is a universal phenomenon.The notion of politeness is commonly held by speakers of all languages and members of all cultures;it can be observed in all human interactions and plays an important role in interpersonal relationship.However，what is Chinese politeness?It is not easy to give a satisfactory definition of politeness.Among Chinese linguists and scholars，He Zhaoxiong gives his famous interpretation of politeness.In the light of Chinese culture，He holds that politeness can be understood as a social phenomenon，a means to achieve good interpersonal relationships，and a norm imposed by social conventions，and therefore politeness is phenomenal，instrumental，and normative by nature(1995:2).He emphasizes the association of politeness with social and moral values.So to analyze Chinese politeness，it is safe to start with Chinese culture.This paper focuses on the characteristics of Chinese politeness and gives the cultural interpretation of these features.It aims to enhance our knowledge of Chinese traditional culture and better our understanding of Chinese politeness.

II Chinese Cultural Orientations

Here we use two major cultural dimensions to deal with the issue:individualism－collectivism(IC)and small－large power distance(PD)，which are proposed by Hofstede to explain differences and similarities in cross－cultural communication.According to Hofstede(1991)，IC is"the extent to which one＇s self－identity is defined by individual characteristics or by the group＇s characteristics to which the individual belongs and the extent to which individual or group interests dominate";PD refers to"the extent that power differences are accepted and sanctioned in a society"(Thomas 2002:50).

2.1 Collectivism

According to their investigations，Gudykunst and Ting－Toomey(1988) hold that Chinese culture with all the Southeast Asian cultures is"collectivistic and has high scores on Hofstede＇s power distance dimension"(Hu 1999:102).That is to say，Chinese culture is oriented toward collectivism and high power distance.

Collectivism remains at the very core of Chinese culture.As opposed to"individualism"，"collectivism"is a cultural pattern，consisting of closely linked individuals who see themselves as part of their collectives and give priority to group goals over their own personal goals(Gudykunst＆Mody 2002:144).It is based on a rigid social framework that makes a distinction between in－groups and out－groups.

The major outstanding characteristics of collectivism in Chinese culture are "we"consciousness and collectivity－orientation(Hu 1999:352).Chinese people lay great importance on"we"identity，the group＇s interests，obligations and commitment.They give precedence to group goals over their personal goals.The core building block of collectivism is the collective unconscious of"connected self".That is，Chinese people perceive themselves as interdependent self，emphasizing"status，roles and relationships，belonging and fitting in，occupying one＇s proper place and engaging in appropriate action"(Hu 1999:526).Thus，interdependence is highly treasured(At home one relies on one＇s parents and outside on one＇s friends).And Chinese people value warm human feelings and harmonious relationships.Under the strong influence of relationship orientation，" the maintenance of ever－lasting relationship based upon good feelings between self and others has become common practice among Chinese people"and the achievement of harmony in interactions is regarded as the ultimate goal(Hu 1999: 515).Moreover，Chinese people are collectivity－oriented.They strive for the group＇s goals and value reciprocity，conformity，modesty and prudence.Face and face－work are stressed.To achieve harmony，Chinese people emphasize implicitness，indirectness，ambiguity and self－restraint(Gudykunst＆Mody 2002: 33－36).

2.2 High Power Distance

Besides，the interpersonal relationship in Chinese culture characterizes itself as high power distance.In other words，Chinese culture is status－based.It is predominantly vertical."Verticality serves to reinforce collectivism"Members of collectivistic cultures see themselves"different in terms of status"."Inequality is the accepted norm，and serving and sacrificing for the in－group feature prominently"(Thomas 2002:65).According to Hofstede，people from a high power distance culture see power as a basic social fact and tend to accept uneven power distributions;they emphasize status differences and social hierarchy between them(Gudykunst＆Mody 2002:144);every member in the society has defined rights，duties and obligations according to his/her social position.Thus，the relations among Chinese are essentially asymmetrical，complementary and reciprocally obligatory.This asymmetry predisposes role differences and details its specifics(Hu 1999:507－508).

The two basic Chinese cultural orientations are assumed to originate from the traditional social structure and Confucianism.Traditionally，Chinese society is family－based，that is，the family is seen as the basic social unit while the society as a whole is viewed as"an extended family".In other words，"the larger social structure is always regarded as an extension of the family structure"(Song 2002:22).Thus，the Chinese social structure is hierarchical in nature.Every Chinese has been placed into complex and ordering hierarchical relationshipsthose"between ruler and subject，father and son，husband and wife，older and younger brothers，and between friends".Moreover，Jia(2002:159－161)notes that the principles of ren(being benevolent)and li(the rules of proper social conduct)，the core concepts of Confucianism，help reinforce the vertical relationship by advocating the maintenance of status and role differences between people.Ren，the Chinese character etymologically，means not only the ideal manhood but also the ideal reciprocal relationship between people.Obviously，ren deals with interpersonal relationship.According to Jia，"it advocates reciprocity，the reciprocity of love or benevolence，which is basically asymmetrical and based on the kinship relationships.This is best expressed in the obligations and responsibilities ascribed to members of the society according to their social positions"." Ren serves as the goal of life，while li serves as the norms and means for achieving this acceptable ends of social life".(Hu 1999:506)Li"defines the appropriate conduct and behavior，and the specifics of obligations and responsibilities for every social member according to his/her social position.It"advocates nothing but hierarchical relationships"and aims to maintain this hierarchical social order.

Ren and li，in fact，function as a system of moral codes，which underpin the social behavior of the Chinese.Besides，the Doctrine of the Mean advocates that people"should constantly keep themselves in the middle in terms of behavior.With nothing in excess as guiding principle，people are expected to constantly be watchful against overdoing and indulgence.The practice of the Mean brings balance and harmony".(Hu 1999:508)And therefore compromise and reserve are highly valued.In short，the vertical structure of Chinese society along with the strong influence of Confucianism on the Chinese is an important context in the conceptualization of politeness.Therefore，the perception of Chinese politeness，its realizations and standards need to be related to such a context.

III The Origin of Limao in Chinese Culture

As any study of linguistic politeness in a particular speech community demands due attention to its history，its evolution and its development，the specific study of Chinese politeness is no exception.Thus，to understand politeness in modern Chinese，one has to reach back to its past，its history.As a culturally specific phenomenon，the evolution of the Chinese notion of politeness is different from that of English politeness and accordingly their connotations are different from each other.

In Chinese culture，the closest equivalent of the English word"politeness" is limao(morphemically meaning polite appearance)，which is believed to have historically evolved from the notion of li(the rules of proper conduct).According to He(1995:3)，the notion of li was advocated by the ancient Chinese philosopher and thinker Confucius，who lived in a period when the slavery system had declined and constant wars occurred between feudal states;the former aristocratic social hierarchy was shattered，and chaos practically reigned over the land.One of the measures advocated by Confucius to remedy the situation was to restore li，which did not mean"politeness"at that time，but referred to the slaverybased social hierarchy and order of the Zhou Dynasty(dating back to 1100 B.C.)."To Confucius，it was the model of an ideal society.To restore li，it was necessary to zhengming(to rectify names)"(He 1995:3).Ming in the Confucian sense encompasses an individual＇s social roles and status.To zhengming is to put each individual in his/her place according to his/her social rank and position.Consequently，social order and class hierarchy could be maintained.Accordingly，speech has to be used appropriately in accordance with the user＇s social status in the social hierarchy so that li could be restored，otherwise，deviation from li would disrupt the established social order and thus create social chaos.

About two hundred years after Confucius，the notion of li seemed to have deviated a little from the original Confucian sense but very close to its derivative in modern Chinese，i.e.limao(courtesy，politeness).It was first found in a book entitled Li Ji(The Book of Rites)，supposed to be compiled by Dai Sheng during the West Han Dynasty(He 1995:3－4).This book is a treatise on politeness and rituals written for the purpose of attaining moral and political goals.That is，the book of Li Ji aims to lay down rules of proper conducts with the purpose of training people to be good－conducting and to observe the social hierarchy so as to consolidate the feudal sovereignty.He further states that the opening lines of Li Ji run as follows:"Speaking of li，humble yourself but show respect to other."Thereby，it can be seen that the Confucian notion of li had evolved from the original sense of social appropriacy with regard to one＇s social status into the sense of social appropriacy by the demonstration of self－denigrating and otherrespecting by the West Han Dynasty."It(self－denigrating and other－respecting)has ever since become an essential feature of the Chinese notion of politeness and has remained at the core of politeness in Chinese culture"(1995:4).

From the previous brief discussion of the history of the notion of politeness in Chinese culture，it has become clear that Chinese politeness has its own origin and thus connotations:politeness in Chinese culture has a strong trace of moral and political goals since it helps maintain social hierarchy and order，and thus，Chinese politeness is normative，emphasizing morals and ethics.

VI Features of Chinese Limao

Limao is a compound noun，comprising li(ceremony，courtesy，etiquette) and mao(appearance).Hence，it is synonymous with"courtesy"，"manners" and"politeness".It serves as"a code of conduct，which stipulates how one should conduct oneself not only in public but at all times.It is often translated as an outer expression of the inner self"."Limao as part of social etiquette is the code of behavior expected of individuals，who share the norms of politeness in the speech community"(Song 2000:25).

Since Chinese culture advocates collectivism(group solidarity and harmony)and characterizes itself as high power distance(social hierarchy and status)，Chinese limao manifests many a collectivistic feature，which is primarily shown by self－denigration and other－respecting.According to Gudykunst and Mody (2002:80)，Chinese people，compared with English speakers，are very low in self－assertiveness.They tend to"suppress confrontations or expression of negative verbal messages.Courtesy often takes precedence over truthfulness".Thus，we argue that non－assertiveness can echo the essence of Chinese limao."Nonassertiveness"involves indirect and self－denying expression of one＇s beliefs，feelings，needs and rights.When inevitable interpersonal conflicts arise，nonassertive people tend to give up their own rights and needs in deference to others or permit others to overlook their rights and they very often remain reserved:" they typically say nothing and try to conceal their feelings and desires.They usually justify their behavior on the ground that they do not want to create problems or get involved in unpleasant situations;they generally accept criticism and feel guilty or apologize even when criticism is unwarranted"(Gao 2002:24－25).Non－assertiveness on the whole can help avoid conflicts and thus，social harmony can be maintained and smooth interpersonal relationships can be achieved.

The features of Chinese limao can be more specifically reflected by Gu＇s great contribution.According to Gu，there are basically four notions underlying the Chinese concept of limao:respectfulness，modesty，attitudinal warmth and refinement."Respectfulness"is the self＇s positive appreciation or admiration of the other concerning the latter＇s face，social status，and so on."Modesty"can be seen as another way of saying"self－denigration"."Attitudinal warmth"is the self＇s demonstration of kindness，consideration，and hospitality to the other.And"refinement"refers to the self＇s behavior to the other which meets certain standards(1990:239).When analyzing these features of Chinese politeness，He (1995:6)points out that the first notion"respectfulness"is，to a large extent，identical with the need to maintain H＇s positive face or more specifically mianzi; the second notion"modesty"，though varying in the importance attached to it in different cultures，is largely universal，but as the typical interpretation of selfdenigration，it is uniquely Chinese;the third notion"attitudinal warmth"is a highly valued trait in Chinese culture，which may run opposite to the English notion of hospitality.According to Brown and Levinson＇s politeness model，demonstrating kindness，consideration and hospitality，S runs the risk of infringing on H＇s personal freedom，thus threatening H＇s negative face.Whereas in Chinese culture，it just shows S＇s concern about H and is regarded as completely proper and hence polite behavior.He further states that the fourth notion"refinement" represents the normative character of politeness.Though universal，this notion together with the third one has not been mentioned in any important politeness theory raised by Western scholars，neither in Leech＇s PP nor in Brown＆Levinson＇s FT.This delineation reflects Gu＇s deep insight into the Chinese language and culture in that"it has integrated certain features universally recognized in the conception of politeness in various cultures and certain features so much emphasized in Chinese culture as to be almost uniquely Chinese"(He 1995:6).