劉永海, 武善忠
(1.軍事科學院戰(zhàn)爭理論和戰(zhàn)略研究四室,北京 100091;2.石家莊幼兒高等師范??茖W校,河北石家莊 050228)
從元代道教史籍看道教的平等思想
劉永海1, 武善忠2
(1.軍事科學院戰(zhàn)爭理論和戰(zhàn)略研究四室,北京 100091;2.石家莊幼兒高等師范??茖W校,河北石家莊 050228)
道教吸收各家各派的優(yōu)秀觀念,形成了獨具特色的平等思想。道教的平等觀念并不停留在思想理論的層面上,而是有各方面的宗教實踐。作為記錄道教中人宗教實踐的主要文獻,元代道教史籍對道教的平等思想有充分的反映,尤其是仙格平等、人與物之間道性平等的思想,較前世道教史籍更為集中、豐富。
元代;道教史籍;平等思想
平等是人類在久遠的古代就開始追求,但迄今都沒有完全實現(xiàn)的理想。因此,對于平等問題的探討幾乎一直伴隨著人類文明的發(fā)展。在先秦文化中,很多學派從不同角度提出了平等學說。如孔子在教育方面主張“有教無類”;墨子在倫理方面主張“愛無差等”,“不辟親疏”;韓非從政治角度堅持“賞罰不阿”、“法不阿貴”等思想。晏嬰從經(jīng)濟利益角度提出“權有無,均貧富”的觀點;孟子從道德修養(yǎng)角度提出“人皆可以為堯舜”的學說。莊子則站在宇宙高度,提出“以道觀之,物無貴賤”、“萬物齊一”的思想。
在宗教世界里,人在上帝神靈面前是平等的。道教吸收各家各派的優(yōu)秀觀念,形成了獨具特色的平等思想。這些思想,在六朝道經(jīng)《洞玄靈寶本相運度劫期經(jīng)》、梁宋文明《道教義》、唐潘師正《道門經(jīng)法相承次序》等道經(jīng)中,都有論述。我們知道,道教的平等觀念并不停留在思想理論的層面上,而是有各方面的宗教實踐。作為記錄道教中人宗教實踐的主要文獻,元代道教史籍對道教的平等思想有充分的反映,尤其是仙格平等、人與物之間道性平等的思想,較前世道教史籍更為集中、豐富。
元代道教史籍中反映的道教人無貴賤、仙格平等的思想大致有如下含義。
第一,將平等視為道德之祖、清靜之源。王嚞創(chuàng)立全真教的重要理念就是追求“平等”?!捌降取倍郑峭踔仃栆簧枷氲淖詈罂偨Y及最為強調者,是他在道教理論上的獨特貢獻。一方面,追求道教與儒、釋在社會地位上的平等。他創(chuàng)立全真教伊始,就高揚三教合一、三教平等旗幟。后來,王嚞到山東接連創(chuàng)立五個教派:大定八年(1168)八月,于文登建三教七寶會。九年(1169)四月,于寧海建三教金蓮會,至福山又建三教三光會,在登州建三教玉華會,至萊州起三教平等會,都是立足于儒釋道三家平等,而未囿于道教。他勸道徒誦讀的經(jīng)典包括《般若心經(jīng)》、《道德經(jīng)》、《清靜經(jīng)》及《孝經(jīng)》,也體現(xiàn)了其濃厚的平等意識。另一方面,追求全社會成員得到平等的救助機會。王嚞解釋其創(chuàng)立的“平等會”云:“竊以平等者,為道德之祖,清靜之源,乃‘金蓮’、‘玉華’之本,‘三光’、‘七寶’之宗。普濟群生,遍超庶俗。銀焰充盈于八極,彩霞蒸滿于十方,人人顧吐于黃芽,比比不游于黑路。”[1]347也就是說,“平等”思想是道教理論的源頭,是“金蓮”、“玉華”等其他全真教團的根本。這一思想體現(xiàn)著全真教“普濟群生,遍超庶俗”,使每個人都得到救助的創(chuàng)教宗旨。
第二,人無貴賤、有道則尊的思想?!稛o上秘要》卷三十四《師資品》引《升玄經(jīng)》云:“學道之人,莫擇貴賤,勿言長幼。人無貴賤,有道則尊。”[2]113在道教中人看來,修持者之間沒有世俗社會的貴賤、長幼之別,只有道性高低之分。元代道教史籍以許多生動的記述闡釋了這種思想?!稓v世真仙體道通鑒》收錄仙真近900人,來自社會的各個階層,世俗所謂高貴者如王室貴族,卑微者如街頭乞丐,在求仙證道的條件、歷程上,皆一視同仁。即使貴為天子,倘道性不足,也未必修成正果。歷史上的很多皇帝,如漢武帝一生求“仙”若渴,耗盡心機,但窮兵黷武,濫殺無辜,終難列入仙班;相反,遭受帝王壓迫、陷害者,升為仙真的卻不在少數(shù)。如秦統(tǒng)一后,始皇屢征王次仲入秦,不至。始皇復命使謂之曰:“吾削平六合,一統(tǒng)天下,孰敢不賓者?次仲一書生,而違天子之命,以轞車載之,不爾,當殺之;持其首當以正風俗,無肆其悖慢?!痹t使至山致命,載轞車中,次仲忽化一大鳥,翻然出車,使者驚拜曰:“無復命,必見誅,惟神人憫之。”鳥徘徊空中,撥墜三翮,使者得之以進。始皇素好神仙之道,聞其變化,亦甚悔恨。[3]129此處,始皇雖久慕仙道,然體道不深,只有悔恨而已。王次仲所求并非事秦之榮耀,故對始皇之征召無積極反應,雖遭囚車之苦,終有成仙的歸宿。變化飛騰之說,當然無根無據(jù),但道教所張揚之精神已經(jīng)躍然紙上。即便出身低微,若條件具備,亦可得道成仙。此等思想于元代道教史籍之中,不勝枚舉。如《仙鑒》卷三之宋來子為“楚莊公時市長(勤雜人員)”,商丘子胥為牧豕之人,嘯父以補履為業(yè),冠先以釣魚為生,陰生常求乞于長安市中等,卷五之皇初平為丹溪牧羊人,卷三十七之藍采和原本是個叫花子,皆為下層社會成員。由是觀之,成仙與否,仙階幾何,完全依據(jù)一個“道”字,除此之外,別無其他標準;而“道”之取得,又皆賴于求道之人修道、體道之程度。元代道教史籍很好地貫徹了這一思想。
第三,道性人人具足、不分長幼,修道之人要平等待人的思想。王嚞以后的很多全真教徒都能把平等的思想貫徹于自己的宗教實踐之中。棲云真人王志謹則提出“道性人人具足,奚分長幼乎?”“凡隸玄門者,皆太上之徒,吾之昆季也”的觀點[4]756,認為人人都道性具足,不分長幼,還視隸道門者為兄弟。這一思想要求修道之人應該平等地對待各個階層的人,直接促進了全真教的傳教度人活動。王志謹在燕薊傳教時,“達官著姓,白叟黃童,山林緇素之流,閨闈笄緫之子,莫不羅拜于前”,影響甚大。即使是丫童之拜,王志謹也作耐心解答。他還經(jīng)常到各地講經(jīng)說法,不論何時何地、何種階層,召之即往。他說:“我全真者流,不敢失前輩遺囑,富貴者召之亦往,貧賤者召之亦往;一日十請亦往,千里來請亦往。急于利人,不敢少安以自便耳?!保?]756用直接行動詮釋了平等度人的思想。夏志誠在傳教過程中,同樣“不擇乞兒、皂隸及門弟之未行者”,“雖狂童對坐,爾汝談笑,與貴戚大人不分等類,蓋其心無彼此也”[4]764。正是這種不分等類、心無彼此的觀念,使全真教爭取到了各階層的信眾,在短時期內實現(xiàn)了迅猛發(fā)展。
《純陽帝君神化妙通紀》中的許多呂仙故事,對平等待人思想作了最好詮釋。在“石肆求茶”條中,呂洞賓“詭為丐者,衣衫襤褸,血肉垢污,殆不可近”,茶肆女“殊無厭惡意,益取上茗待之”。呂以富貴、長壽佑之[5]712。在“再度郭仙”條,呂洞賓也是詭稱乞丐;“神警陳公”、“游大庾嶺”、“游戲虹橋”、“成都施丹”諸條,呂洞賓皆以衣衫襤褸、垢面鶉衣的道士身份出現(xiàn);“度黃鶯妓”中又成了襤褸垢污的秀才。對于道教仙真這種“以臟試人”的現(xiàn)象,法國學者洪怡沙(Isabelle Ang)說:“贊成污垢就是認同同樣的社會地位?!保?]的確,呂洞賓以貧窮、低俗、臟亂的形象出現(xiàn),而受測試者并沒有任何歧視舉動,而是一視同仁,這與道教平等待人的思想是十分吻合的,反映著道教對平等的追求。
茅山道士朱象先直接闡述了“人”與“物”(動、植物)相互平等的思想:“人與物,林然在大化中,性一而已。特稟之于形氣者,有正偏通塞之異耳”;“嘗聞大鈞播物,非厚木而薄秭稗也。圣人博愛,亦非尚賢而鄙愚也。一視同仁、理惟公共”[7]559。意思是說“人”與“(動、植)物”只有形氣的不同,而無道性之差異。修道之人應該像圣人那樣對人賢愚互愛,對“人”與“物”一視同仁,這一思想顯然是基于先秦道家“萬物齊一”和唐代潘師正“一切有形,皆有道性”而來,但如此鮮明地提出人和動、植物平等的思想,在前世道教史籍中還是不多見的?!睹钔o》講了一則呂洞賓在岳州巴陵縣度化老松精的故事。老松精因累積陰功,有了靈氣,具備了成仙的條件,所以得到呂仙的度化。在早期道教故事模式中,松精是精怪之一,屬于惡勢力的代表,不但不能度化為仙,反而是嚴厲鎮(zhèn)壓的對象。呂洞賓度化老松精,說明道教神仙度化范圍的擴大,將動植物也納入度化對象。詹石窗說:“道教不僅要把苦難中的人們引渡到祥和清靜的彼岸世界,而且也希望一切有靈之物也能成就正果?!保?]297《金蓮正宗記》也提到呂仙度老松精的事:“老松之精,無情之物也,猶且區(qū)區(qū)訓誨,使成無上神仙,況于人為萬物之最靈者乎?”[1]346說明所謂“無情之物”也能成仙的觀念在道教乃至民間已經(jīng)頗為流行。
道教以萬物皆有道性的觀點闡明了萬物平等的主張,自然界中的一切并不是為人類而存在,而是各自有其自身的價值,從而否定了人類凌駕于萬物之上的特權。所以,人與自然的合理關系就是共存共榮,融合為一體。元代道教史籍中反映出許多仙真尊重自然,尊重動物、植物,反對殺食動物,否則將遭到報應的思想。如借真武之口宣揚:“恣殺物命,以充口腹,冤家業(yè)鬼相隨,無由解脫”,“凡好食生命,不悟因業(yè)等人,難免殃咎嗣昌”[9]625等?;谶@樣一種人和動植物平等的思想,元代道教史籍中的許多道者對動植物非常愛護。如陳安世“稟性慈仁,行見鳥獸下道,避之不愿驚動,不踐生蟲,未嘗殺物”[3]173。牛文侯“每冬寒則布谷于地,使禽獸有所食”[3]272。梁時隱者孔祐居天丹山,“有鹿中矢,來投祐;祐為牧豢,愈而后去”[10]99。這些仙真都把動物當作人類的朋友來對待,給它們喂食、療傷。正是因為善待動物,動物才不傷害人類。郭文舉居深山十余年而無患,丞相王導迎至京師問曰:“猛獸害人,先生獨不畏耶?”文舉曰:“吾無害獸之心,故獸不害人。”[3]263對此,我們不可作機械理解,追究郭文舉到底有無與野獸相安無事的經(jīng)歷,而應該看到道教中人準確地說出了人與動物應有的和諧關系,以及人類在處理和動物之間關系時應有的“無害獸之心”的態(tài)度。世俗愛鳥者,將鳥置于狹小的籠子里,對鳥而言,實為最大之不幸。得道之人愛鳥、養(yǎng)鳥,不是養(yǎng)之以籠,而是完全放歸自然。宋代道士塗定辭“好飼群鳥,或臨風一呼,則千數(shù)翔集,馴狎左右”[3]376。完全是一幅人與動物和諧相處、其樂融融的美妙圖畫。
元代道教史籍還有反對濫割草木,提倡愛護自然、種植樹木的思想。潘師正奉敕修建宮觀后,謂弟子曰:“興動土工,屠割草木,驚擾禽獸,吾罪人也?!保?]246雖然興建工程受帝室支持,但潘師正還是為破壞了本來和諧的自然環(huán)境而痛心。一些高道為種植樹木、美化自然作出了自己的努力。如展上公曾于小茅山北種白李樹,郭四朝曾使人植樹于郭干塘[11]587。董奉:“君居(廬)山間,呪水治病,不取錢物,使人重病愈者,栽杏五株;輕者一株。如此數(shù)年,計得七萬余株,郁然成林。而山中百蟲群獸,游戲樹下?!毙幼映墒旌?,董奉又將杏子變賣成糧食,用來救濟廬山貧苦百姓和南來北往的饑民[3]192。這就是醫(yī)學歷史上著名的“杏林”故事,“杏林”一詞便漸漸成為醫(yī)家的專用名詞。董奉行醫(yī)濟世的高尚品德,贏得了百姓的普遍敬仰;他讓人在山上種植杏樹,在綠化、美化自然方面也功不可沒。北宋武陵道士龔元正“手植松杉數(shù)十萬株”[3]405,以一人之力,植樹數(shù)十萬株,其精神尤為可貴。相比之下,大滌山洞霄宮的植樹綠化則是眾多高道持久不懈努力的結果,反映了道教中人熱愛自然、美化山川的群體意識。“宋淳熙三年(1176),同知宮事章居中,凡宮山岡阜,與民境接者,悉數(shù)以松,親董工役?!贝撕?,歷世道眾累年植樹,到元代大德九年(1305),歷經(jīng)一百二十余年。此時的大滌山“四山虬枝龍形,環(huán)列森立”,樹木“圍皆丈許”,景色“真圖畫所不能到”??梢?,知宮及植樹眾道士“經(jīng)始培植之功,不可泯也”[12]34。
總之,元代道教史籍擁有豐富的平等思想,在人與人之間,既有追求身份平等的思想,又有平等待人的觀念;在人與物之間,既有人和動物和諧相處的舉動,又有人與植物自然融合的實踐。如此集中、豐富地展現(xiàn)道教的平等思想,在以往道教史籍中是沒有過的。而全真教以平等作為創(chuàng)教理念,更是對道教理論的一大貢獻。當然,我們說道教具有平等思想,不是說道教能夠做到完全的平等。道教的神仙譜系也像世俗社會的官僚體系一樣,是等級森嚴的;道教中的女仙無論從數(shù)量上,還是從影響力上講,與男性仙真都有差距,這也反映了道教不平等的一面。但是,相對于儒、釋而言,道教的平等思想更有特色,對平等的追求更為直接、熾烈。
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[11]劉大彬.茅山志[M]//道藏:第5冊.北京:文物出版社,上海:上海書店,天津:天津古籍出版社,1988.
[12]鄧牧.洞霄圖志[M]//叢書集成初編:3167-3168冊.北京:中華書局,1985.
Abstract:After China joining the WTO,it has become the consensus of the people that China's media industry must go to the world and to participate in international competition.China's media companies need to grasp the new opportunity to promoting the implement of internationalization strategy.The Chinese government also needs to arrange appropriate institutions and actively promote and protect the actions of media enterprises internationalization.
Key words:China's media industry;internationalization;strategy;reflection
Zhou Enlai's Contributions to the Formation of China's Diplomacy Pattern
WANG Jia-yun
(School of Politics and Public Administration, Huaiyin Normal University, Huai'an, Jiangsu 223001, China)
Zhou Enlai made the following foundation contributions to the formation of China's diplomacy pattern:First is the breakthrough of foreign body.Zhou Enlai attached importance to summit diplomacy, and actively carried out party-to-party diplomacy and people-to-people diplomacy;second is the transcendence of foreign objects.Zhou Enlai focus on diplomacy with socialist countries,and transcending ideological differences to frequently develop the foreign relations with the third world countries and the capitalist countries;third is the expansion of foreign content, including political diplomacy, economic diplomacy and cultural diplomacy.
foreign body;foreign objects;foreign content;economic diplomacy;cultural diplomacy
Mao Zedong's Views on Science
ZENG Min
(Research Department of Mao Zedong Thought Sichuan Provincial Academy of Social Sciences, Chengdu, Sichuan 610072, China)
Abstract:Mao Zedong interpreted the complex concept of"Science"from various perspectives,by studying and absorbing the reflection and research on science from various subjects.On the basis that science is the embodiment of knowledge, he raised the idea that science is the crystallization of the knowledge.On the basis that science is to search for truth, he introduced that science is the weapon of searching for truth.On the basis that science is the tool to change the world, he proposed that science is armed forces to fighting for freedom.On the basis that science is social organizational structure,he thought that modernization of science and technology is the key to realize the modernization of industry, agriculture and national defense.Mao Zedong's scientific minds explained the basic areas of Mao Zedong's thought on science and technology.
Key words:Mao Zedong;scientific concept;thought on science and technology
Philosophic Foundation of the Unity of Natural Science and Humanities and Social Sciences—Based on"The Same Science"Perspective in the Manuscripts of Economic Philosophy of 1844
ZHU Chun-shan1,WANG Rong-jiang2
(1.College of Law and Politics, Xuzhou Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221116, China;2.School of Politics and Public Administration, Huaiyin Normal University, Huai'an, Jiangsu 223001, China)
Abstract:The problem of achieving the unity of the natural sciences and the humanities and social sciences has always been concerned by academic circles, which has not been resolved.In the Manuscripts of Economic Philosophy of 1844, by transforming Feuerbach's"perceptual"criticism,Marx established the new understanding of man and nature and social relations,and made an ideological assertion that natural science and human science essentially belong to"the same science".Marx's"the same science"idea implies theoretical foundation of the unity of natural science and humanities and social sciences.The emotion and practical existentialism based on the dialectic relationship between man and nature are the logic starting point and the end for human liberation, a blend of natural sciences and humanities and social sciences.
Key words:natural science;human science;perceptual practice;the same science
Heidegger's Thought on Human-World Relation and Its Contemporary Revelation
LIN Hui-yue1, LI Xi-qi2, XIA Fan3
(1.& 3.School of Humanities and Law,Changsha University of Science and Technology;2.Hunan Information Science Vocational College, Changsha, Hunan 410000, China)
Abstract:Basing on"Dasein"of Ontology,Heidegger demonstrated that human-world relation and human-technology relation are an operational and practical relation and he did a skillful critique from existential and humanistic standpoint.Contemporary technological phenomenology focus on human-technology relation and it shows experience turning besides metaphysical tradition.Critique of technology is important, but the social construction of technology is more fundamental.Through the adjustment and control of technology, the ecological balance system among man, technology and the world can be established.
Key words:Heidegger;human and the world;human and technology;technological phenomenology
The Equal Ideas from Taoism History Books of Yuan Dynasty
LIU Yong-hai1,WU Shan-zhong2
(1.The Fourth Research Office of Theories and Strategic of War, Academy of Military Sciences, Beijing 100091, China;2.Shijiazhuang Preschool Teachers College, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050228, China)
Abstract:By absorbing the excellent concept from various factions, Taoism formed a unique equality thought.Taoism's concept of equality is not stuck in the ideological and theoretical level, but there are various religious practices.Taoist thought of equality are fully reflected in Taoism history books of Yuan dynasty.Compared with the previous Taoism historical records, the thought of equality in Taoism history books of Yuan dynasty is more concentrated and rich.
Key words:Yuan dynasty;history books on Taoism;equal thought
The Nature of Existence Theory of Chinese Philosophy—the Theory of Jism as the Center
LIU Yi-qing
(College of Humanities, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, Zhejiang 312000, China)
Abstract:The thought of Qi and the survival concept of the Chinese are closely associated.In the context of Chinese philosophy history,we can clarify the ideological content of Jism since the pre-Qin dynasty;thereby we can understand the natures of Existence Theory of Chinese Philosophy.From the meaning of the existence theory, human's individual existence is always available to communication with the outside world,and the contradiction of the individual can always be resolved through their own transformation.Meanwhile, the physical and spiritual homology decides that soul and body in the survival view of the Chinese system are unified in Qi.
Key words:Qi;Jism;Chinese philosophy;theory of existence
Spivak:Rhetoric and Cultural Interpretation
GUAN Rong-zhen
(School of Foreign languages, Guangxi University, Nanning, Guangxi 530004, China)
Abstract:This paper examines Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's challenging the traditional definitions of rhetoric, pointing out that rhetoric can only be settled in the productive unease shuttling between theory and practice,which grants infinitive openness to rhetoric,and revealing the significance of uplifting rhetoric to such a strategic position of indeterminacy in postcolonial cultural criticism.
Key words:rhetoric;metaphor;tension;shuttle;cultural interpretation
Philosophy of"Harmony"and Study of Urban Aesthetics
LI Wei
(College of Arts, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, Anhui 241000, China)
Abstract:The philosophical thought with rich connotation co-sponsored by China and the West in the"Axle Age"is essential theoretical resource for the construction of contemporary harmonious society and urban cultural studies,which provides us utilizing thoughts and intellectual supports to solve"urban issues"and"urban crisis"in the process of urbanization,and even provides the necessary theoretical reference and academic support for the burgeoning urban aesthetics research.
Key words:"harmony";urban aesthetics;heterogeneity;complementarities;contradictoriness
Design and Application of Immoral Internet Behavior Scale—The Study of College Students Internet Users as a Case
HUANG Shao-hua
(Ningbo Institute of Technology, Zhejiang University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315100, China)
Abstract:Through documents, interviews, and open-ended questionnaires, the author designed the measurement scale for college students'immoral Internet behavior, which contains two dimensions of social morality and professional morality.The author used this scale to measure college students'immoral Internet behavior.The author found that the scale has good reliability and validity.College students'participation in the"Internet plagiarism"and"Internet piracy"becomes more common, therefore it is urgent to strengthen the cultivation of college student Internet morality.
Key words:college student;network morality;immoral Internet behavior;scale
Reflection on the Development Strategy of Internationalization of China's Media Industry
DING He-gen1,ZHENG Qing-hua2
(1.School of Journalism and Communication, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China;2.School of Humanities,Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, China)
K247 < class="emphasis_bold">文獻標識碼:A
A
1007-8444(2011)06-0743-04
2011-05-20
劉永海(1968-),男,河北遵化人,博士,教授,主要從事歷史文獻學研究。
責任編輯:仇海燕