潘 琪
(徐州醫(yī)學院 公共教育學院 外語教研室,江蘇 徐州 221004)
預設(shè)(presupposition)這一概念是一百多年前德國哲學家弗雷格(Gottlob Frege)提出來的,又譯為“前設(shè)”、“先設(shè)”或“前提”。指的是發(fā)話者在說出某個特定句子時的先決條件,即說話者為保證句子或語段(utterance)的適應性而必須滿足的前提。人們最初把預設(shè)作為語義研究,稱為“語義預設(shè)”(semantic presupposition)。隨著研究的深入,語言學家們發(fā)現(xiàn)預設(shè)不僅是個語義概念,而且是個語用概念,某些詞或句式隨著語境的變化可能隨之變化。從這個意義上講,就叫語用預設(shè)(pragmatic presupposition,簡稱PP)。 它是基南(Edward Keenan)于1971年在“自然語言的兩種預設(shè)”中提出的。他認為預設(shè)可以被看做話語跟其使用語境之間的關(guān)系,把語用預設(shè)定義為“說出一句話就語用預設(shè)其語境是合適的”(Keenan,1971:49)。 那么,語境是什么? 根據(jù)萊文森(Levinson,1983:212),語境是“參與者互相知道,或者至少公認無異議的一個命題集”。在文學作品中,作者常常根據(jù)具體的語境,運用預設(shè)揭示寫作背景,突出主人翁深層心理和性格特點,以塑造典型人物形象,同時運用預設(shè)沖突產(chǎn)生幽默或荒誕戲劇性效果。
自上個世紀六、七十年代以來,預設(shè)一直是語言學家和學者們的熱議之一。國內(nèi)對預設(shè)和語篇的研究也不少,如姜旭的“語用預設(shè)在文學語篇中的作用”、王守元的“預設(shè)與文學語篇建構(gòu)”,等等。本文擬從語用預設(shè)分析《紅字》的語篇建構(gòu),試圖為文學欣賞提供一點有價值的參考。
《紅字》(THE SCARLET LETTER)是美國十九世紀最有影響力的浪漫主義小說家納撒尼爾·霍桑的長篇小說。它講述了17世紀在波士頓一個犯了通奸罪的女人海斯特·普林和女兒珍珠與情夫亞瑟·迪梅斯代爾及前夫羅杰·齊林沃思的愛恨情仇故事。小說通過預設(shè)沖突,把主人翁的“孤獨”、“痛苦”、“罪”展現(xiàn)得淋漓盡致。例如:
(1)On the breast of her gown, in fine red cloth,surrounded with elaborate embroidery and fantastic flourishes of goldthread, appeared the letter A.It was so artistically done, and with so much fertility and gorgeous luxuriance of fancy,that it had all the effect of a last and fitting decoration to the apparel which she wore...(Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter)
The young womanwastall,with a figure of perfect elegance on a large scale, she had dark and abundant hair, so glossy that it threw off the sunshine with a gleam,and a face which,besides being beautiful from regularity of feature and richness of complexion,had the impressiveness belonging to a marked brow and deepblackeyes.Shewaslady-like, too.(NathanielHawthorne, The Scarlet Letter)
這是《紅字》第二章主人翁海斯特走出牢門的一段陳述。這段話描寫了一位著裝講究、舉止典雅的女士竟是走上刑場的罪人,并強調(diào)了胸前佩戴精心縫制的裝飾A形標記。這里的A代表Adultery,“通奸”的意思。作者在開篇預設(shè)了小說的虛擬世界背景是北美清教殖民統(tǒng)治,在這種語境下A就預設(shè)罪惡,犯了清戒律,與海斯特形象不相稱。語篇運用預設(shè)沖突,營造了主人翁深層心理的痛苦。
法國語言學Durot(1972:94)早已指出,預設(shè)的基本功能就是為語篇的進一步發(fā)展建立一個框架。正如Vennemann(1975:315)所說的那樣,語篇中的預設(shè)限定語篇的后續(xù)語句范圍?!都t字》在一開篇即為后面的語篇建立了一個框架,并運用預設(shè)把一些不便明言或沒必要的信息巧妙地蘊藏在話語中。以預設(shè)的形式表現(xiàn)出來,起到事半功倍的作用,更突出作品的戲劇性。
語用預設(shè)的語篇組織功能既是語篇信息流的要求,又是交際雙方互動過程的結(jié)果。從本質(zhì)上講,無論是會話語篇還是書面語篇都是一個動態(tài)的互動過程(Coulthard,1977,1994;Widdowson,1984)。 在語篇的生成過程中,發(fā)話者為保證語篇信息流的暢通,需要根據(jù)自己對受話者的知識狀態(tài)所做出的假設(shè)及受話者可能做出的反映合理地編排信息。在文學作品中,發(fā)話者可以理解為陳述者或創(chuàng)作者,受話者常常是讀者或參與者。例如:
(2)A throng of bearded men, in sad-colored garments,and gray, steeple-crowned hats, intermixed with women, some wearing hoods and others bareheaded, was assembled in front ofawoodenedifice,thedoorofwhichwasheavilytimberedwith oak, and studded with iron spikes.(Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter)
(3)The grass-plot before the jail, in Prison Lane, on a certain summer morning, not less than two centuries ago, was occupied by a pretty large number of the inhabitants of Boston,all with their eyes intently fastened on the iron-clamped oaken door.Amongst any other population,or at a later period in the history of New England,the grim rigidity that petrified the bearded physiognomies of these good people would have augured some awful business in hand.(Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter)
這兩段節(jié)選小說第一章和第二章,作者以陳述者的視角講述了故事發(fā)生的背景和地點。例(2)中提到“the door of which was heavily timbered with oak,and studded with iron spikes”,以隱蔽的信息處理為預設(shè)信息,和例(3)中“all with their eyes intently fastened on the iron-clamped oaken door.”形成互動,這樣在語篇發(fā)展過程中信息流暢自然。
在語篇的組織過程中,可以進入語篇信息流的事實非常多,但作者不可能也沒有必要將所有信息都以陳述的方式編排到信息流中,那樣語篇就會變得繁冗不堪,不能引人入勝。經(jīng)濟性是語篇組織的重要原則之一。在文學作品創(chuàng)作中,作者在話語信息組織上為了突出主要信息,一般將次要信息以語用預設(shè)的形式內(nèi)嵌于話語之中,作為對主要信息的鋪墊和襯托?;羯T凇都t字》的語篇組織建構(gòu)上也是如此。例如:
(4)From this intense consciousness of being the object of severe and universal observation,the wearer of the scarlet letter was at length relieved, by discerning, on the outskirts of the crowd,a figure which irresistibly took possession of her thought s.An Indian, in his native garb, was standing there; but the red men were not so infrequent visitors of the English settlements,that one of them would have attracted any notice from Hester Prynne, at such a time; much less would he have excluded all other objects and ideas from her mind.By the Indian’s side, and evidently sustaining a companionship with him, stood a while man,clad in a strange disarray of civilized and savage costume.(Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter)
(5)“Speak,woman!”saidanothervoice,coldlyandsternly,proceeding from the crowd about the scaffold.“Speak;and give your child a father!”
“Iwill not speak!”answered Hester, turning pale as death,but responding to this voice,which she too surely recognized.“And my child must seek a heavenly Father;she shall never know an earthly one!”(Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter)
這段節(jié)選《紅字》第三章,主人翁海斯特在市場接受公眾和法官的審判。例(4)中再次出現(xiàn)“the scarlet letter”,這一信息和開篇就預設(shè)的Letter A相互對應,為語篇的進一步發(fā)展埋下預設(shè)。這段主要信息是描述主人翁海斯特被審訊的場景及觀眾對此事的反映,作者在突出這個主要信息的同時,把次要信息另一個人物也嵌入話語之中。例(5)中這個人再次出現(xiàn),對審訊做出回應,“Speak,woman!”said another voice, coldly and sternly, proceeding from the crowd about the scaffold.“Speak; and give your child a father!”這個聲音正是主人翁海斯特熟悉又懼怕的聲音?;羯R灶A設(shè)的形式把小說的另一個重要人物自然而然引入,這個人物正是海斯特的前夫羅杰·奇林沃思。
預設(shè)是發(fā)話者對交際語境中沒有異議或不容置疑的信息的認同和設(shè)定,即假定該信息為交際參與者所共有并且可以為對方所理解。在交際過程中,發(fā)話者根據(jù)自己的假設(shè),將雙方認同的信息以隱含的方式表述為預設(shè)命題,并以此作為信息傳遞的背景知識或前提。從這個意義上講,預設(shè)表達的一般是語篇世界中已經(jīng)確立的“事實”或合乎情理的事態(tài)。換言之,語用預設(shè)是文學語篇中表征現(xiàn)實世界和虛擬世界的銜接。讀者解讀語篇時通過語篇中的預設(shè)假設(shè)虛擬世界的存在,并把自己置于虛擬世界中,從而對語篇做出理解(Short 1996:232)。正是因為預設(shè)信息與語篇虛擬世界中的一般信息或常理發(fā)生矛盾,才會產(chǎn)生預設(shè)沖突。在《紅字》中,霍桑正是運用預設(shè)沖突制造荒誕的戲劇性效果。例如:
(6)“You speak in riddles, learned Sir, ”said the pale minister,glancing aside out of the window.
“Then, to speak more plainly, ”continued the physician,“and I crave pardon, Sir, --should it seem to require pardon,--for this needful plainness of my speech.Let me ask,--as your friend, --as one having charge, under Providence, of your life and physical well-being, --hath all the operation of this disorder been fairly laid open and recounted to me?”
“How can you question it?”asked the minister.“Surely, it were child’s play, to call in a physician, and then hide the sore! ”(Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter)
(7)“ThenIneedasknofurther, ”saidtheclergyman, somewhat hastily rising from his chair.“You deal not, I take it, in medicine for the soul!”
“Would you, therefore, that your physician heal the bodily evil?How may this be,unless you first lay open to him the would or trouble in your soul?”
“...No!—not to thee!—not to an earthly physician!”
“It is as well to have made this step,”said Roger Chill inggworth to himself,looking after the minister with a grave smile.“There is nothing lost.We shall be friends again anon...”(Nathaniel Hawthorne, The Scarlet Letter)
這兩段是主人翁海斯特的情夫亞瑟·迪梅斯代爾及前夫羅杰·齊林沃思之間的對話。背景是牧師Dimmesdale因為內(nèi)心負疚感和罪惡導致他精神崩潰,這種內(nèi)心掙扎使他的身體每況愈下。而Chillingworth察覺了年輕的牧師Dimmesdale和前妻的隱情,于是以醫(yī)生名義故意和牧師接近,不斷折磨牧師的靈魂。從以上對話中,我們可以清楚地看到兩個人物的戲劇性沖突所在。Chillingworth每個看似善意的問候和關(guān)心,實際都是對Dimmesdale心靈的折磨。我們從Chillingworth的問題中可以推斷他當時的預設(shè)期待:“Would you,therefore,that your physician heal the bodily evil?How may this be,unless you first lay open to him the would or trouble in your soul?”Chillingworth的預設(shè)回答是“Yes, I would tell you the truth...”但事實相反,牧師的回答是“...No!—not to thee!—not to an earthly physician.”也就是說,Chillingworth的預設(shè)失敗,這兩個矛盾人物戲劇性的沖突就產(chǎn)生了。這正揭示了Chillingworth的內(nèi)心陰險、刻薄和扭曲的性格,以及Dimmesdale的懦弱和內(nèi)心極度愧疚。
Stalnaker認為,如果一個命題是說話人在特定語境中的語用預設(shè),則這個命題是說話人本身設(shè)想和相信的。創(chuàng)作者常常運用預設(shè)主觀性的特點制造高潮,對故事情節(jié)的發(fā)展起到推動作用。例如:
(8)He turned towards the scaffold, and stretched forth his arms.
“Hester, ”said he, “come hither!Come, my little Pear”...
“Madman, hold!What is your purpose?”whispered he.“Wave back that woman!Cast off this child!All shall be well!Do not blacken your fame,and perish in dishonor!I can yet save you!Would you bring infamy on your sacred profession?”
“Ha, tempter!Methinks thou art too late! ”answered the minister, encountering his eye, fearfully, but firmly.“Thy power is not what it was!With God’s help, I shall escape thee now! ”
這段對話發(fā)生的背景是在安息日德高望重的牧師Dimmesdale將在市場對公眾布教,這個市場也是7年前對他的情人Hester進行審判和受辱的地方。創(chuàng)作者這種主觀性預設(shè)增強了作品荒誕性。正在慶祝當日,布教結(jié)束后,牧師Dimmesdale做出了出乎意料的決定—他把他心中的紅字公布于眾。這一舉動不僅震撼了圍觀的人們,更讓醫(yī)生Chillingworth始料不及。牧師Dimmesdale把他心中恥辱的烙印和盤托出,這是牧師擺脫陰險醫(yī)生控制的唯一方法,作者匠心獨運的預設(shè)沖突把故事情節(jié)發(fā)展推向高潮。
《紅字》這部作品已經(jīng)有很多學者從文學欣賞或評論角度進行過分析和研究。本文試圖從語用預設(shè)角度分析這部傳世巨作。通過以上分析,我們了解到語用預設(shè)在《紅字》的語篇建構(gòu)中具有組織作用,使整個語篇信息流暢、前后銜接;語用預設(shè)在語篇建構(gòu)中產(chǎn)生荒誕的戲劇性效果,通過預設(shè)主觀性沖突,凸顯高潮,使作品顯得神工意匠。總之,語用預設(shè)的研究是語用學的重要課題之一,其研究成果不僅會對語用學領(lǐng)域產(chǎn)生影響,還會對文學作品的創(chuàng)作和賞析產(chǎn)生推動作用。
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