吳 娜,丁 焱
(1.復(fù)旦大學(xué)附屬婦產(chǎn)科醫(yī)院,上海 200011;2.復(fù)旦大學(xué)護(hù)理學(xué)院,上海 200032)
妊娠期糖尿病(gestational diabetes mellitus,GDM)是指妊娠期間首次出現(xiàn)或發(fā)現(xiàn)的糖耐量異常[1]。盡管GDM的碳水化合物不耐受癥狀會(huì)在分娩后消失,仍有1/3的女性產(chǎn)后被測(cè)出糖尿病或糖耐量受損,10% ~50%的GDM婦女產(chǎn)后5年內(nèi)會(huì)發(fā)生2型糖尿病(type 2 diabetes mellitus,T2DM)[2-4]。2009 年的 1 項(xiàng)薈萃分析中,GDM婦女相對(duì)于孕期血糖正常的婦女將來發(fā)生DM 的相對(duì)危險(xiǎn)度為 7.43(95%CI 4.79 ~ 11.51)[5]。因此,對(duì)于高危人群進(jìn)行血糖篩查以便早期診斷T2DM,并通過改變生活方式以及早期治療從而避免遠(yuǎn)期并發(fā)癥,降低再次妊娠的嬰兒病死率、先天性畸形發(fā)生率以及她們遠(yuǎn)期心血管疾病的發(fā)生率[6-8]。為了對(duì)GDM孕婦分娩后的管理提供理論依據(jù),強(qiáng)調(diào)GDM孕婦產(chǎn)后隨訪的重要性,從而改善患者今后的生命質(zhì)量[9]?,F(xiàn)將GDM婦女產(chǎn)后血糖監(jiān)測(cè)的現(xiàn)狀與研究進(jìn)展綜述如下。
研究報(bào)道,產(chǎn)后DM總體發(fā)病率為11% ~70%,取決于各研究的參加者各自特殊的危險(xiǎn)因素、種族以及篩查方式的異質(zhì)性和隨訪時(shí)間的長(zhǎng)短[10]。Kim等[11]1965—2001年28篇文章進(jìn)行薈萃分析發(fā)現(xiàn),GDM婦女產(chǎn)后隨訪時(shí)間為6周~28年,糖尿病的累計(jì)發(fā)生率為2.6% ~70%;在產(chǎn)后最初5年內(nèi),糖尿病的累計(jì)發(fā)生率增長(zhǎng)最快,10年后比較緩慢。Lobner等[12]對(duì)302例婦女在產(chǎn)后通過口服葡萄糖耐量實(shí)驗(yàn)(OGTT)隨訪血糖,發(fā)現(xiàn)8年后DM的累計(jì)發(fā)生率為52.7%。1項(xiàng)使用生存分析的回顧性隊(duì)列研究中,GDM婦女15年后 DM 的累計(jì)發(fā)生率為25.8%[13]。
2.1 篩查方式的選擇 不同醫(yī)療機(jī)構(gòu)對(duì)于產(chǎn)后篩查方式的建議不統(tǒng)一,主要的爭(zhēng)議就是使用空腹血糖(FPG)還是OGTT[14]。據(jù)報(bào)道,將OGTT作為產(chǎn)后血糖篩查方式[7,15];而劉正云等[9]采用 FPG 或者 OGTT。1998年加拿大糖尿病協(xié)會(huì)推薦GDM婦女產(chǎn)后進(jìn)行OGTT篩查[6]。第5屆國(guó)際GDM研討會(huì)議建議產(chǎn)后采用 75 g OGTT[16]。世界衛(wèi)生組織推薦采用 OGTT[17-18];1997—2003年美國(guó)糖尿病協(xié)會(huì)指南建議采用FPG,盡管承認(rèn)OGTT是有效的診斷方法[19];2008年英國(guó)國(guó)家衛(wèi)生與臨床評(píng)價(jià)機(jī)構(gòu)也建議只進(jìn)行FPG監(jiān)測(cè),沒有OGTT[20]。2009年美國(guó)婦產(chǎn)科學(xué)院指出,F(xiàn)PG 以及OGTT都可以用來診斷糖尿病,OGTT的結(jié)果能確診FPG受損以及糖耐量受損[21]。FPG篩查雖簡(jiǎn)單易行并且可重復(fù)性強(qiáng),但如果僅用FPG,可能會(huì)漏診一部分高危人群[1]。Kwong 等[22]指出,在篩查結(jié)果異常的人群中,只有28%是通過FPG檢測(cè)出的。在1項(xiàng)回顧性研究中,如果僅用FPG,將有72%的產(chǎn)后高血糖婦女被漏診[23]。
2.2 篩查時(shí)間 據(jù)報(bào)道,血糖隨訪時(shí)間大都在產(chǎn)后6~8周[7,15]。加拿大糖尿病協(xié)會(huì)推薦GDM婦女產(chǎn)后6周~6個(gè)月進(jìn)行篩查[6];第五屆國(guó)際GDM研討會(huì)議建議產(chǎn)后6~12周篩查血糖[16]。目前南澳大利亞鼓勵(lì)GDM婦女篩查時(shí)間為產(chǎn)后6周~3個(gè)月[24-25],美國(guó)糖尿病協(xié)會(huì)建議GDM婦女產(chǎn)后6周監(jiān)測(cè)血糖,對(duì)于持續(xù)空腹血糖受損或糖耐量異常的婦女應(yīng)每年監(jiān)測(cè)血糖[26]。美國(guó)婦產(chǎn)科學(xué)院建議在產(chǎn)后2周,產(chǎn)后6周以及隨后的每1~3年進(jìn)行OGTT檢測(cè)血糖,檢測(cè)的頻率取決于患者血糖不耐受的存在與否及嚴(yán)重程度[27]。國(guó)外隨訪持續(xù)時(shí)間為6周~28年不等[11]。
2.3 篩查結(jié)果 詹雁峰等[7]對(duì)186例妊娠期糖代謝異常孕婦產(chǎn)后6~8周進(jìn)行OGTT隨訪,有52例異常,占27.96%,其中FPG受損占0.54%,糖耐量受損為24.73%,DM 占2.69%。黃志宏等[28]對(duì) 84 例妊娠期糖代謝異常孕婦產(chǎn)后42 d隨訪,有54例血糖正常,占60.71%,血糖異常33 例,占39.29%,其中DM 7 例,占8.33%,糖耐量受損24例,占28.57%,F(xiàn)PG受損2例,占2.38%。Lawrence等[29]的1項(xiàng)回顧性研究表明,血糖正常、FPG受損、糖耐量受損、DM及產(chǎn)后不正常的血糖結(jié)果和孕期使用胰島素、格列苯脲和二甲雙胍以及分娩后較長(zhǎng)時(shí)間才進(jìn)行血糖監(jiān)測(cè)有關(guān)。Kwong等[22]指出,在進(jìn)行產(chǎn)后篩查的女性中,21%結(jié)果異常。Jang等[30]對(duì)朝鮮GDM史婦女產(chǎn)后6~8周行OGTT實(shí)驗(yàn),發(fā)現(xiàn)38.3%的女性持續(xù)糖耐量異常,其中15.1%具有DM,23.2%糖耐量受損。
2.4 篩查率 許多研究都表明,只有少部分GDM女性進(jìn)行產(chǎn)后血糖監(jiān)測(cè)[31-35]。詹雁峰等[7]研究表明,產(chǎn)后6~8周血糖隨訪率 66.43%。Russell等[36]在1項(xiàng)回顧性研究中指出,只有45%的GDM婦女進(jìn)行產(chǎn)后血糖篩查,其中1/3以上有持續(xù)糖耐量異常;Smirnakis等[35]發(fā)現(xiàn),只有37%的婦女按照美國(guó)糖尿病委員會(huì)的建議進(jìn)行產(chǎn)后血糖篩查;Kwong等[22]對(duì)就診妊娠期糖尿病門診的1006例進(jìn)行回顧性分析,只有438例進(jìn)行產(chǎn)后篩查。Blatt等[37]報(bào)道,只有19%的GDM婦女在產(chǎn)后6個(gè)月進(jìn)行血糖篩查。
3.1 專業(yè)人員重視力度不強(qiáng) 研究表明,只有20%的GDM婦女有婦產(chǎn)科醫(yī)師開具的產(chǎn)后血糖隨訪的處方[36]。在加拿大糖尿病協(xié)會(huì)頒布GDM婦女產(chǎn)后篩查的指南后,醫(yī)師們并未執(zhí)行指南[38]。其原因有缺少指南意識(shí),不熟悉指南等[39]。在國(guó)內(nèi)有的醫(yī)師和護(hù)士也認(rèn)為,GDM是妊娠期內(nèi)分泌變化所致的代謝異常,產(chǎn)后均能恢復(fù),故不重視其產(chǎn)后血糖篩查[40]。在一項(xiàng)隨機(jī)對(duì)照試驗(yàn)中,接受調(diào)查的基層醫(yī)師只有37%對(duì)患者進(jìn)行產(chǎn)后 OGTT 篩查[41]。2008 年 Dietz等[42]的研究中,仍有21%的患者沒有獲得產(chǎn)后血糖隨訪的處方。
3.2 患者自我感知缺乏 以往很多研究都注重于GDM發(fā)展為DM的危險(xiǎn)因素,很少有關(guān)注GDM婦女的危險(xiǎn)感知和健康信念。Spirito等[43]報(bào)道,2/3有GDM史的女性認(rèn)為,再次妊娠不會(huì)再發(fā)生GDM,1/5不認(rèn)為自己是DM高危人群。Kim等[44]發(fā)現(xiàn),在217例受過良好教育的高加索人、亞洲人以及太平洋島嶼的GDM女性中,僅有16%認(rèn)為自己將來會(huì)發(fā)展為DM。在澳大利亞1項(xiàng)對(duì)患GDM 3年后女性的調(diào)查中,32%認(rèn)為她們發(fā)展成T2DM的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)是低或很低的[45]。否認(rèn)或低估自己具有患DM的危險(xiǎn)因素導(dǎo)致常規(guī)的隨訪率低,說明應(yīng)強(qiáng)化GDM是DM危險(xiǎn)因素的意識(shí)。
3.3 醫(yī)療服務(wù)系統(tǒng)的不足 Bennett等[46]的質(zhì)性訪談中表明,門診工作繁忙,候診時(shí)間較長(zhǎng),沒有固定的醫(yī)務(wù)人員給予自己專門的照護(hù),隨訪時(shí)往往患者都是吃完早飯無法進(jìn)行FPG實(shí)驗(yàn),還要次日再來,也降低了產(chǎn)后隨訪率。此外,產(chǎn)后篩查方式的不統(tǒng)一,OGTT的操作繁瑣,抽血次數(shù)多在某種程度上也影響了篩查率。
3.4 家庭支持缺乏 Bennett等[46]對(duì)GDM女性在產(chǎn)后6周進(jìn)行訪談,發(fā)現(xiàn)影響產(chǎn)后隨訪的原因還有新生兒的健康狀況、照顧新生兒的壓力、無暇關(guān)注自己的健康和對(duì)于家庭出現(xiàn)新生命的情感上的壓力。Schaefer-Graf等[47]也指出,挑戰(zhàn)適應(yīng)照顧小兒的壓力使得產(chǎn)后監(jiān)測(cè)變得復(fù)雜。
3.5 其他 丁俊蓉等[15]和詹雁峰等[7]均指出,年輕的、本科以下學(xué)歷以及無糖尿病家族史的婦女產(chǎn)后隨訪率較低,可能這些女性易低估自己的病情[12]。黃志宏等[28]研究表明,孕期未給予飲食強(qiáng)化的婦女產(chǎn)后隨訪率也較低。另外種族也可能影響篩查率,美國(guó)的1項(xiàng)研究[37]表明,亞洲人的隨訪率最高,而白人的隨訪率較低;同時(shí)也指出年輕的女性產(chǎn)后隨訪率低。Bennett等[46]的研究中也表明,害怕被診斷出T2DM而不愿意隨訪,擔(dān)憂仍舊像孕期那樣控制飲食和監(jiān)測(cè)血糖也降低了隨訪率。
孕婦產(chǎn)后隨訪的依從性和醫(yī)師產(chǎn)后糖尿病篩查的處方上均存在不足。產(chǎn)后6周隨訪以及醫(yī)師血糖篩查的處方可能會(huì)增加產(chǎn)后血糖隨訪率[48]。研究表明,在某些功能到位有利于使用時(shí),醫(yī)師更有可能遵從指南。實(shí)施策略,如納入常規(guī),設(shè)置提醒系統(tǒng),都有助于提高指南的依從性[49]。電子病歷以及計(jì)算機(jī)化的提醒系統(tǒng)也有助于提高依從性[50-51],一旦被診斷為 GDM,自動(dòng)產(chǎn)生產(chǎn)后血糖篩查的處方并通知其醫(yī)師,并對(duì)患者提供電話和郵件提醒[29];國(guó)外1項(xiàng)隨機(jī)對(duì)照實(shí)驗(yàn)表明,產(chǎn)后給予患者及其家庭醫(yī)師的產(chǎn)后篩查提醒可以提高篩查率[52];而超過85%的醫(yī)師和患者認(rèn)為提醒可以提高篩查率[41]。南澳大利亞在2002年7月成立GDM召回注冊(cè)制度,是當(dāng)前澳大利亞唯一的GDM長(zhǎng)期隨訪系統(tǒng),目的在于提高GDM婦女患糖尿病的早期發(fā)現(xiàn)率[53]。這一系統(tǒng)對(duì)于澳大利亞GDM史婦女進(jìn)行長(zhǎng)期的隨訪是很有效的一種方法,可以提醒其定期檢測(cè)血糖[54]。我國(guó)在2005年召開的全國(guó)首屆妊娠合并糖尿病協(xié)作組會(huì)議上倡議,產(chǎn)科醫(yī)師應(yīng)與內(nèi)分泌醫(yī)師聯(lián)合加強(qiáng)GDM患者產(chǎn)后規(guī)范化管理和隨訪,提高患者對(duì)治療的依從性,以預(yù)防和延遲T2DM的發(fā)生或減輕糖尿病慢性并發(fā)癥對(duì)患者健康的危害[55]。Stasenko等[56]研究發(fā)現(xiàn),GDM婦女在孕37周左右接受護(hù)理教育者的健康宣教,相比沒有接受宣教的女性,產(chǎn)后血糖隨訪率較高。Kapustin等[57]認(rèn)為,護(hù)理人員應(yīng)該按照臨床實(shí)踐指南,要求GDM婦女定期血糖隨訪并實(shí)施一些預(yù)防糖尿病的措施,尤其對(duì)年輕的、學(xué)歷層次較低的孕婦開展產(chǎn)后隨訪血糖的宣教工作[15]。同時(shí)應(yīng)做好家屬工作,緩解GDM女性照顧新生兒的壓力;簡(jiǎn)化門診隨訪程序,縮短就診時(shí)間。另外GDM的診斷標(biāo)準(zhǔn)尚不統(tǒng)一,2010年國(guó)際糖尿病與妊娠研究組出臺(tái)了關(guān)于GDM新的診斷標(biāo)準(zhǔn),統(tǒng)一使用2 h OGTT[58]。
GDM婦女是轉(zhuǎn)變?yōu)門2DM患者的高危人群,應(yīng)加強(qiáng)對(duì)妊娠期糖尿病婦女孕時(shí)和產(chǎn)后的規(guī)范化管理[59]。對(duì)于失訪率較高的高危人群,應(yīng)有針對(duì)性地加強(qiáng)宣教,提高依從性,減少DM的發(fā)生。
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