張琳琳 魏坤琳 李 晶

兒童的人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步*

張琳琳1,2魏坤琳3李 晶1,2

(1中國科學(xué)院行為科學(xué)重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室, 中國科學(xué)院心理研究所, 北京 100101)(2中國科學(xué)院大學(xué)心理學(xué)系, 北京 100049) (3北京大學(xué)心理與認(rèn)知科學(xué)學(xué)院, 北京 100080)

人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步是一種“社會(huì)膠粘劑”, 能促進(jìn)兒童產(chǎn)生更多的親社會(huì)行為。兒童的人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步能力隨著年齡的增長不斷提升, 其同步表現(xiàn)受到運(yùn)動(dòng)方式、節(jié)奏刺激類型、同步對象等因素影響。在人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步過程中, 時(shí)間感知、運(yùn)動(dòng)計(jì)劃和運(yùn)動(dòng)執(zhí)行三大認(rèn)知因素參與其中, 既制約著個(gè)體同步能力的發(fā)展, 也影響個(gè)體同步的表現(xiàn)。孤獨(dú)癥作為一種神經(jīng)發(fā)育性障礙, 孤獨(dú)癥兒童表現(xiàn)出異常的人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步。未來的研究不僅要探討孤獨(dú)癥兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的異常機(jī)制, 還要更多關(guān)注人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步訓(xùn)練在孤獨(dú)癥群體中的實(shí)際應(yīng)用和干預(yù)效果。

人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步, 親社會(huì)行為, 認(rèn)知機(jī)制, 孤獨(dú)癥

1 引言

人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步(interpersonal motor synchroni- zation)是指兩人或者多人在互動(dòng)的過程中, 動(dòng)作同時(shí)發(fā)生并保持一致的現(xiàn)象(Bernieri et al., 1988)。它普遍存在于各種社會(huì)情境中, 例如閱兵方陣整齊劃一地齊步走, 聚光燈下舞者集體翩翩起舞, 以及齊聲朗誦、集體合唱等等。雖然與他人的動(dòng)作保持同步看起來稀疏平常, 但真正完成人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步既要感知他人的動(dòng)作, 同時(shí)還要在空間和時(shí)間上協(xié)調(diào)自己的動(dòng)作保持同步, 整個(gè)過程需要精確的時(shí)間感知能力、精準(zhǔn)的運(yùn)動(dòng)計(jì)劃和執(zhí)行能力(Dahan et al., 2016; Hoehl et al., 2021; Konvalinka et al., 2010; Mills et al., 2019), 并非一件易事。特別是對于嬰幼兒來說, 要做到人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步需要相當(dāng)長的發(fā)展歷程(Repp & Su, 2013)。

近些年來, 人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步是一個(gè)非常熱門的研究課題, 引發(fā)了音樂認(rèn)知、社會(huì)心理學(xué)、發(fā)展心理學(xué)、認(rèn)知神經(jīng)科學(xué)等領(lǐng)域研究者的廣泛關(guān)注(Kragness & Cirelli, 2021)。其中一個(gè)重要原因是人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步能夠促進(jìn)親社會(huì)行為。既往成人研究發(fā)現(xiàn)各種各樣的人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步(如同步按鍵、同步擊鼓、齊步走、跳舞等)都會(huì)促進(jìn)親社會(huì)性(Cirelli, 2018; Macpherson et al., 2020; Mogan et al., 2017; Rauchbauer & Grosbras, 2020; Rennung & G?ritz, 2016), 例如能增加參與者的親密感(Tarr et al., 2016)、信任感(Launay et al., 2013)和合作性行為(Reddish et al., 2013; Wiltermuth & Heath, 2009)等。這一結(jié)果在兒童身上也同樣得到驗(yàn)證。有研究發(fā)現(xiàn), 12個(gè)月大的嬰兒在搖椅子時(shí), 相較于異步搖晃, 他們更喜歡同步搖晃的社交伙伴(Tun?gen? et al., 2015); 14個(gè)月大的嬰兒隨著音樂與實(shí)驗(yàn)人員同步彈跳或者異步彈跳時(shí), 同步組的嬰兒對實(shí)驗(yàn)人員表現(xiàn)出更多的助人行為(Cirelli et al., 2014);研究還發(fā)現(xiàn)短時(shí)間的同步擊鼓可以增強(qiáng)4歲兒童與同伴之間的合作(Rabinowitch & Meltzoff, 2017),增進(jìn)8～9歲兒童之間的親密感和相似感(Rabinowitch & Knafo-Noam, 2015)。總之, 人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步為兒童的成長與發(fā)展帶來了積極的親社會(huì)效應(yīng)。

該領(lǐng)域的研究主要集中在揭示人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步促進(jìn)親社會(huì)行為的原因上(Feniger-Schaal et al., 2021; Vicaria & Dickens, 2016), 已有研究者分別從社會(huì)認(rèn)知、神經(jīng)生理和演化心理學(xué)等角度給出理論解釋。例如, 社會(huì)認(rèn)知理論認(rèn)為, 人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的積極結(jié)果可能與自我?他人邊界模糊有關(guān)(Cross et al., 2019; Valdesolo & Desteno, 2011)。神經(jīng)生理學(xué)理論認(rèn)為, 人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步與腦間同步、內(nèi)啡肽和催產(chǎn)素的釋放有關(guān)(Hu et al., 2017; Launay et al., 2016; Shamay-Tsoory et al., 2019)。演化心理學(xué)認(rèn)為, 同步化運(yùn)動(dòng)增強(qiáng)了團(tuán)體之間的聯(lián)系, 從而促進(jìn)群體合作(Brown, 2000; Hagen & Bryant, 2003; Reddish et al., 2013)。但目前這些機(jī)制探討大多集中在成人身上, 尚缺乏對兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的系統(tǒng)探究, 特別是兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的發(fā)展軌跡及其特點(diǎn)并不清楚, 兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的影響因素以及同步過程中的認(rèn)知成分缺乏系統(tǒng)梳理。

本文將從三個(gè)方面來總結(jié)兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步領(lǐng)域的研究成果。首先, 本文將闡述兒童同步能力的發(fā)展過程; 其次, 將梳理影響兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步績效的因素, 包括運(yùn)動(dòng)方式(手指、頭、腳等)、節(jié)奏刺激類型(如視覺刺激、聽覺刺激)和同步對象(如機(jī)器人、成人、兒童)等實(shí)驗(yàn)操控條件的影響, 以及時(shí)間感知、運(yùn)動(dòng)計(jì)劃和運(yùn)動(dòng)執(zhí)行三大認(rèn)知因素的制約。最后, 將探討神經(jīng)發(fā)育性障礙的特殊群體——孤獨(dú)癥兒童的人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的特點(diǎn)及制約因素。由于社會(huì)互動(dòng)缺陷和溝通障礙是孤獨(dú)癥兒童的核心癥狀, 因此其人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的發(fā)展軌跡存在一些特異性表現(xiàn), 理清孤獨(dú)癥兒童與健康兒童在人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步行為中的異同不僅能夠幫助我們理解兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的發(fā)展軌跡, 同時(shí)還對人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步在孤獨(dú)癥兒童中的實(shí)際應(yīng)用和干預(yù)效果具有啟發(fā)意義。

2 兒童同步能力的發(fā)展過程

2.1 兒童同步化運(yùn)動(dòng)的先決條件及其發(fā)展

節(jié)奏感知能力是兒童完成人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的先決條件(Trainor & Cirelli, 2015), 它的發(fā)展可以追溯到嬰兒早期。有研究發(fā)現(xiàn), 2個(gè)月大的嬰兒就能識(shí)別出簡單節(jié)奏中的速度變化(Baruch & Drake, 1997)。當(dāng)音樂節(jié)拍發(fā)生變化(從兩拍變成三拍或者從三拍變?yōu)閮膳?時(shí), 7個(gè)月大的嬰兒會(huì)表現(xiàn)出驚訝(Hannon & Johnson, 2005)。

盡管人類在嬰兒早期就獲得了一定的節(jié)奏感知能力, 但要將節(jié)奏與動(dòng)作完美同步在一起, 還需要漫長的時(shí)間。例如, 5個(gè)月大的嬰兒, 開始出現(xiàn)跟隨外部節(jié)奏刺激晃動(dòng)身體的跡象(Zentner & Eerola, 2010); 但2歲的嬰幼兒仍然無法做到與外部刺激同步(Zentner & Eerola, 2010); 直到4歲, 兒童才能夠?qū)?dòng)作簡單并且節(jié)奏速度在其能力范圍之內(nèi)(300～400 ms)的外部節(jié)奏保持同步(Provasi & Bobin-Bègue, 2003; Rose, 2016)。有橫向研究(4～95歲)表明, 兒童6～7歲時(shí)同步的準(zhǔn)確性和穩(wěn)定性有很大提升, 同步能力大致與成人相當(dāng)(McAuley et al., 2006; Repp & Su, 2013)。隨著年齡的增長, 兒童的同步能力不斷增強(qiáng), 同步行為的穩(wěn)定性和準(zhǔn)確性都逐漸提高(Clizbe & Getchell, 2010; Drake et al., 2000; Fitzpatrick et al., 1996; Getchell, 2007; McAuley et al., 2006)。

綜上所述, 嬰兒早期出現(xiàn)、幼兒期發(fā)展得更精準(zhǔn)的節(jié)奏感知能力, 以及幼兒期才發(fā)展的動(dòng)作與節(jié)奏同步能力, 共同為兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的發(fā)展奠定了基礎(chǔ)(Trainor & Cirelli, 2015)。

2.2 兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的發(fā)展軌跡

目前兒童運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的前期研究主要集中在兒童如何與外部刺激同步, 而少有研究探討兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步。實(shí)際上, 人類在兒童早期就會(huì)呈現(xiàn)自發(fā)性的人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步行為(Cuadros et al., 2020)。例如當(dāng)同伴在一旁擊鼓時(shí), 2歲兒童會(huì)自發(fā)地跟隨對方開始擊鼓或者停止擊鼓(Endedijk et al., 2015)。當(dāng)主試要求2.5歲的兒童分別跟隨節(jié)拍器、動(dòng)態(tài)活動(dòng)的擊鼓機(jī)以及成人同步敲鼓時(shí), 如果外部節(jié)奏速度比兒童內(nèi)在自發(fā)速度(400 ms)更慢, 兒童只有在與成人同步擊鼓的條件下才會(huì)自發(fā)地調(diào)整其敲擊速度。而在另外兩種非人際的條件下(節(jié)拍器、擊鼓機(jī)), 兒童無法根據(jù)節(jié)奏變化調(diào)整其速度(Kirschner & Tomasello, 2009)。這表明, 相較于單純的外部刺激同步, 人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步對兒童來說可能更容易。

然而有研究者發(fā)現(xiàn), 兒童3歲時(shí)在聯(lián)合任務(wù)中表現(xiàn)出人際與非人際相當(dāng)?shù)膮f(xié)調(diào)水平(Endedijk et al., 2015; Meyer et al., 2010)。研究者讓2.5歲和3歲的兒童做一個(gè)連續(xù)按鍵任務(wù), 該任務(wù)有單獨(dú)按鍵、與實(shí)驗(yàn)人員一起聯(lián)合按鍵兩個(gè)條件。結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn), 3歲兒童無論是單獨(dú)按鍵還是聯(lián)合按鍵, 其行為表現(xiàn)相差無幾; 但2.5歲兒童與成人一起按鍵時(shí), 他們的按鍵準(zhǔn)確率比單獨(dú)按鍵時(shí)更低(Meyer et al., 2010)。

綜上所述, 兒童2歲就呈現(xiàn)出自發(fā)的人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步, 直到3歲才表現(xiàn)出人際和非人際相當(dāng)?shù)膮f(xié)調(diào)水平。

3 兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的影響因素

在實(shí)驗(yàn)室情境下, 兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步常用的任務(wù)有彈跳(bouncing)、手指打節(jié)拍(tapping)、拍手(clapping)、敲鼓(drumming)、搖椅子(rocking)、蕩秋千(swing)、行進(jìn)(marching)等。在此過程中, 兒童的同步表現(xiàn)會(huì)受到兩大層面的影響。第一層面是實(shí)驗(yàn)操控條件的影響, 包括運(yùn)動(dòng)方式、節(jié)奏刺激類型和同步對象; 第二層面是同步運(yùn)動(dòng)背后認(rèn)知因素的制約, 包括時(shí)間感知、運(yùn)動(dòng)計(jì)劃和運(yùn)動(dòng)執(zhí)行。

3.1 實(shí)驗(yàn)操控條件的影響

根據(jù)實(shí)驗(yàn)?zāi)康? 研究者在實(shí)驗(yàn)過程中會(huì)操縱不同的變量, 如運(yùn)動(dòng)方式(手指、頭、腳等)、節(jié)奏刺激類型(如聽覺、視覺、觸覺等)、同步對象(機(jī)器人、成人、兒童等), 來探究兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的影響因素。

3.1.1 運(yùn)動(dòng)方式的影響

由于實(shí)驗(yàn)任務(wù)的不同, 被試使用的身體部位也各不相同。有研究認(rèn)為兒童之所以無法達(dá)到與成人相當(dāng)?shù)耐剿? 很大可能是因?yàn)檫\(yùn)動(dòng)能力沒有完全發(fā)育好(Trainor & Cirelli, 2015)。而成人研究發(fā)現(xiàn)運(yùn)動(dòng)方式對同步表現(xiàn)確實(shí)存在影響。有研究比較了成人的手和腳(Aschersleben & Prinz, 1995; Fujii et al., 2011)、手指和鼓槌(Madison et al., 2013; Manning et al., 2016)、優(yōu)勢手和非優(yōu)勢手(Lor?s et al., 2012; Studenka & Zelaznik, 2008)、拍手和彈跳(Tranchant et al., 2016)、點(diǎn)頭和手指以及腳(潘祿, 2016)等不同效應(yīng)器對運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的影響, 結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)敲擊鼓槌比敲擊手指更穩(wěn)定(Madison et al., 2013; Manning et al., 2016), 優(yōu)勢手的同步表現(xiàn)要優(yōu)于非優(yōu)勢手(Lor?s et al., 2012; Studenka & Zelaznik, 2008), 拍手比彈跳的同步準(zhǔn)確性更高(Tranchant et al., 2016), 點(diǎn)頭對于同步化的促進(jìn)效果最強(qiáng), 手指打節(jié)拍次之, 用腳打拍子最弱(潘祿, 2016)。由于各個(gè)身體部位的物理特性(如質(zhì)量大小和質(zhì)量分布)不同, 因此在使用這些部位做節(jié)奏性運(yùn)動(dòng)時(shí), 其固有頻率也各不相同。有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)質(zhì)量較大的效應(yīng)器(如軀干和腿)傾向于與較慢的節(jié)奏速度同步, 而質(zhì)量較小的效應(yīng)器(如手指)傾向于與較快的節(jié)奏速度同步(Toiviainen et al., 2010)。還有研究認(rèn)為運(yùn)動(dòng)所需的力量越小, 同步運(yùn)動(dòng)的穩(wěn)定性越高(Carson et al., 2009), 例如彈跳需要在運(yùn)動(dòng)過程中對抗重力的影響, 因此同步的穩(wěn)定性差(Tranchant et al., 2016)。此外, 動(dòng)作的復(fù)雜性、運(yùn)動(dòng)過程中是否需要協(xié)調(diào)身體的各個(gè)關(guān)節(jié)和部位等都對同步表現(xiàn)產(chǎn)生一定影響(Manning et al., 2016)。

運(yùn)動(dòng)方式對同步化運(yùn)動(dòng)的影響在兒童行為研究中也得到了證實(shí)。有研究要求4.5～6.5歲的兒童用6種方式做節(jié)奏性同步運(yùn)動(dòng), 分別是優(yōu)勢手或非優(yōu)勢手單手拍膝蓋, 雙手同時(shí)或交替拍膝蓋, 坐姿或站姿狀態(tài)下雙腳交替打節(jié)拍。結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn)優(yōu)勢手的同步表現(xiàn)要優(yōu)于非優(yōu)勢手, 雙手交替拍膝蓋要比雙手同時(shí)拍膝蓋、坐姿狀態(tài)下雙腳交替打節(jié)拍的同步準(zhǔn)確性更高; 對比雙腳交替打節(jié)拍, 兒童站姿下的同步準(zhǔn)確性要高于坐姿(Tsapakidou et al., 2001)。因此運(yùn)動(dòng)方式是兒童人際同步行為表現(xiàn)的一個(gè)潛在影響因素。

3.1.2 節(jié)奏刺激類型的影響

除了運(yùn)動(dòng)方式, 同步化運(yùn)動(dòng)還會(huì)受到節(jié)奏刺激類型的影響。在早期成人研究中發(fā)現(xiàn), 相較于和具有一定節(jié)奏屬性的視覺閃光同步, 與聽覺節(jié)奏刺激同步的穩(wěn)定性更高(Glenberg et al., 1989)。當(dāng)同時(shí)呈現(xiàn)聽覺和視覺兩種節(jié)奏刺激時(shí), 聽覺刺激的競爭力更強(qiáng)(Aschersleben & Bertelson, 2003), 例如當(dāng)被試在跟隨視覺閃光同步時(shí), 播放干擾聲音, 被試更容易被干擾聲音吸引, 并跟隨聲音刺激按鍵反應(yīng)(Repp & Penel, 2004)。Hove等人的多項(xiàng)研究表明, 與聲音刺激相比, 當(dāng)引入動(dòng)態(tài)型的視覺刺激(如上下運(yùn)動(dòng)或者旋轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)動(dòng)的橫條、手指運(yùn)動(dòng)的動(dòng)態(tài)圖片和漸入漸出的雪花動(dòng)態(tài)效果)作為同步化運(yùn)動(dòng)的刺激線索時(shí), 被試在與聲音刺激同步時(shí)表現(xiàn)最好, 其次是手指動(dòng)態(tài)圖片和上下運(yùn)動(dòng)或旋轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)動(dòng)的橫條, 閃光和雪花動(dòng)態(tài)效果最差(Hove et al., 2007; Hove & Risen, 2009; Hove et al., 2010)。

在兒童運(yùn)動(dòng)同步過程中, 聽覺和動(dòng)態(tài)節(jié)奏刺激顯示出類似的優(yōu)勢。在一項(xiàng)針對6～7歲兒童的節(jié)奏按鍵實(shí)驗(yàn)中, 兒童分別跟隨聲音、閃光、彈跳小球三種節(jié)奏刺激類型做按鍵反應(yīng)。結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn), 兒童在聲音節(jié)奏刺激中的同步表現(xiàn)最好, 其次是彈跳小球, 閃光的同步表現(xiàn)最差(Mu et al., 2018)。

3.1.3 同步對象的影響

兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步所指向的對象(如機(jī)器人、同齡伙伴和成人)對兒童的同步表現(xiàn)也存在影響。有研究顯示2.5歲的兒童分別跟隨動(dòng)態(tài)的擊鼓機(jī)和成人同步擊鼓時(shí), 如果節(jié)奏速度為600 ms (該速度比兒童內(nèi)在自發(fā)速度400 ms更慢), 在與成人同步擊鼓的情況下, 兒童能夠自發(fā)的調(diào)整其敲擊速度。但當(dāng)對面是擊鼓機(jī)時(shí), 兒童則沒有顯示出調(diào)整的跡象(Kirschner & Tomasello, 2009)。類似的, 如果對面的成人是兒童的母親, 即使是1.5歲的兒童, 在節(jié)奏速度為600 ms時(shí), 也會(huì)顯示出自發(fā)調(diào)整速度的跡象; 但如果對面是擊鼓機(jī)的話, 則沒有調(diào)整的跡象(Yu & Myowa, 2021)。這說明人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步有積極的社會(huì)伙伴效應(yīng), 與最親密的照顧者進(jìn)行同步化運(yùn)動(dòng), 對兒童的同步表現(xiàn)促進(jìn)效果最大(Yu & Myowa, 2021)。

有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)同齡伙伴和成人對兒童同步表現(xiàn)的影響程度存在不同。當(dāng)5～12歲的兒童組成同齡或者混齡的二人組同步敲鼓時(shí), 他們同步的準(zhǔn)確率都比和成人一起敲鼓時(shí)更小(Kleinspehn- Ammerlahn et al., 2011)。這說明同步對象動(dòng)作的熟練程度和精確程度, 對兒童的同步化行為有顯著影響。由于成人的動(dòng)作更精確、更具可預(yù)測性, 且能夠適應(yīng)兒童動(dòng)作的不穩(wěn)定, 從而使得成人和兒童之間的同步效果更好(Endedijk et al., 2015)。

綜上, 兒童在人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步過程中所采取的運(yùn)動(dòng)方式、跟隨的節(jié)奏刺激類型以及面對的同步對象都會(huì)影響兒童的同步表現(xiàn)。

3.2 同步運(yùn)動(dòng)背后認(rèn)知因素的制約

除了實(shí)驗(yàn)操控條件的影響, 兒童人際同步運(yùn)動(dòng)還受到背后認(rèn)知因素的制約。人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步過程中, 個(gè)體需要從環(huán)境和同伴那里獲得線索, 形成節(jié)奏感知和時(shí)間感知; 此外還需要計(jì)劃自身的動(dòng)作, 并同時(shí)對自己動(dòng)作的結(jié)果進(jìn)行預(yù)期; 在執(zhí)行動(dòng)作時(shí), 還要同時(shí)監(jiān)控對方的行為反應(yīng), 并根據(jù)雙方的同步情況調(diào)整自己的運(yùn)動(dòng)和節(jié)奏感知, 從而更好地與他人保持同步(Semin & Cacioppo, 2008; Su et al., 2020; Vesper et al., 2010)。由此可見, 人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步包含三大認(rèn)知因素：時(shí)間感知、運(yùn)動(dòng)計(jì)劃和運(yùn)動(dòng)執(zhí)行。這些因素既制約著個(gè)體同步能力的發(fā)展, 也影響著個(gè)體人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的表現(xiàn)。

3.2.1 時(shí)間感知和節(jié)奏感知(Timing Perception and Rhythm Perception)

要完成同步化行為, 個(gè)體就需要保持內(nèi)部節(jié)奏和外部刺激在時(shí)間上的協(xié)調(diào)一致(Provasi & Bobin-Bègue, 2003)。而在努力做到與刺激序列同步之前, 個(gè)體要先具備感知刺激序列時(shí)間間隔及節(jié)奏模式的能力。

節(jié)奏感知是人從外界刺激的時(shí)間組織中提取出節(jié)奏特征的過程, 它分為兩個(gè)層面：一是對刺激序列中規(guī)律的組織方式的感知, 例如音樂中的節(jié)拍(如4/4拍, 以4拍為一個(gè)循環(huán)的組); 二是對等時(shí)性脈沖(isochronous pulse)的感知, 如音樂中的固定速度(tempo)、跳舞或做體操的節(jié)拍式動(dòng)作(潘祿, 2016; Patel, 2006)。個(gè)體節(jié)奏感知和時(shí)間感知的主流認(rèn)知模型是時(shí)鐘模型。該模型認(rèn)為認(rèn)知系統(tǒng)中存在著以節(jié)拍器和累積器為基礎(chǔ)模塊的內(nèi)部時(shí)鐘, 其中節(jié)拍器以穩(wěn)定的時(shí)間間隔發(fā)出信號(hào), 累積器則對節(jié)拍器所產(chǎn)生的信號(hào)進(jìn)行數(shù)量上的累加, 用以表征主觀時(shí)間(潘祿, 2016)。根據(jù)這一理論模型, 人對時(shí)間的準(zhǔn)確估計(jì)依賴于人體內(nèi)部的節(jié)奏振蕩機(jī)制(潘祿, 2016; 萬群等, 2010)。節(jié)奏感知能力在同步行為中的作用主要體現(xiàn)在較好的節(jié)奏感知能力可以讓個(gè)體對下一個(gè)節(jié)拍的到來產(chǎn)生準(zhǔn)確的預(yù)期, 并由此能較好地計(jì)劃自身運(yùn)動(dòng)、保持與外部節(jié)奏的同步。

3.2.2 運(yùn)動(dòng)計(jì)劃與運(yùn)動(dòng)預(yù)測(Motor Planning and Prediction)

在同步化運(yùn)動(dòng)過程中, 如果個(gè)體感知到外部節(jié)奏刺激之后, 再做出運(yùn)動(dòng)反應(yīng), 其產(chǎn)生的運(yùn)動(dòng)一定會(huì)落后于節(jié)拍的時(shí)間點(diǎn)。這是因?yàn)楦兄X信號(hào)傳入中央神經(jīng)系統(tǒng), 再由中樞發(fā)出神經(jīng)指令控制運(yùn)動(dòng), 大概有150 ms的延時(shí)(Repp & Su, 2013)。因此個(gè)體要做到與外部節(jié)奏刺激的同步, 不能先感知、再反應(yīng), 必須要提前發(fā)出運(yùn)動(dòng)指令(例如按鍵的動(dòng)作指令)來克服感知運(yùn)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)中的延遲, 從而完成同步化行為(Kurgansky & Shupikova, 2011; Repp, 2005; Repp & Su, 2013)。這種對感知進(jìn)行預(yù)期、并根據(jù)預(yù)期做出運(yùn)動(dòng)反應(yīng)的機(jī)制可以用運(yùn)動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)內(nèi)模型(Internal Model)中的前饋模型(Forward Model)來解釋(Blakemore & Decety, 2001; Wolpert & Ghahramani, 2000; Wolpert & Kawato, 1998)。即在下一個(gè)節(jié)拍來臨之前, 大腦發(fā)放運(yùn)動(dòng)指令拷貝(Efference Copy)、形成動(dòng)作預(yù)期(Wolpert & Flanagan, 2001), 這個(gè)預(yù)期需要?jiǎng)偤脤?dòng)作與下一個(gè)節(jié)拍在時(shí)間點(diǎn)上發(fā)生重疊。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)在同步化運(yùn)動(dòng)中, 個(gè)體的預(yù)期不僅能克服感知運(yùn)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)所造成的滯后, 還往往會(huì)使動(dòng)作提前幾十毫秒發(fā)生(Repp, 2005)。這種預(yù)期趨勢(Anticipation Tendency)被稱為負(fù)平均異步(Negative Mean Asynchrony) (Repp, 2005; Repp & Su, 2013), 即相對于節(jié)拍點(diǎn), 動(dòng)作反應(yīng)發(fā)生的時(shí)間不是正值或零, 而是一個(gè)負(fù)值。有研究認(rèn)為負(fù)平均異步的發(fā)生是因?yàn)閺拇竽X到耳朵的神經(jīng)傳導(dǎo)速度比大腦到手的傳導(dǎo)速度更快(Aschersleben & Bertelson, 2003; Bia?uńska et al., 2011), 也有研究者認(rèn)為是觸覺和本體覺的感覺登記的速度比聽覺慢帶來的結(jié)果(Wohlschl?ger & Koch, 2000)?？傊? 預(yù)期是同步運(yùn)動(dòng)的核心特點(diǎn)之一, 也是完成同步化行為的重要環(huán)節(jié)(Repp, 2005)。

兒童是否在較早時(shí)期就會(huì)發(fā)展出運(yùn)動(dòng)預(yù)期？一項(xiàng)針對7～8歲兒童和成人的視覺運(yùn)動(dòng)同步研究發(fā)現(xiàn)兒童早期就已發(fā)展出和成人相當(dāng)?shù)膬?nèi)模型機(jī)制來幫助他們有效適應(yīng)環(huán)境(Kurgansky & Shupikova, 2011)。在該研究中, 兩組被試需要分別跟隨500～2000 ms的視覺刺激做同步按鍵任務(wù), 該實(shí)驗(yàn)將同步行為分為起始階段和同步階段, 起始階段指的是從對視覺刺激做出反應(yīng)到能夠?qū)崿F(xiàn)穩(wěn)定同步之間的過渡。研究結(jié)果發(fā)現(xiàn), 7～8歲兒童在起始階段的同步適應(yīng)曲線和成人類似, 這意味著兒童此時(shí)已經(jīng)具備和成人相當(dāng)?shù)膬?nèi)模型, 能夠?qū)ν獠看碳さ陌l(fā)生形成預(yù)期并提前做出反應(yīng)(Kurgansky & Shupikova, 2011)。

當(dāng)同步運(yùn)動(dòng)中同時(shí)存在著社會(huì)互動(dòng)因素即人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步時(shí), 個(gè)體不僅需要對外部刺激做出預(yù)測性反應(yīng), 還需要在與同伴互動(dòng)的過程中監(jiān)視和預(yù)測對方的動(dòng)作、并根據(jù)對方的動(dòng)作反饋不斷調(diào)整自身的行為(Meyer & Hunnius, 2020; Sebanz & Knoblich, 2021)。有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)兒童在人際協(xié)調(diào)(Interpersonal Coordination)過程中監(jiān)測他人行為時(shí), 感覺運(yùn)動(dòng)區(qū)(鏡像神經(jīng)元)激活增加(Ménoret et al., 2014)。還有研究表明, 嬰兒的感覺運(yùn)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)不僅在監(jiān)測時(shí)被激活, 在預(yù)期他人的行為時(shí)也會(huì)被激活(Southgate et al., 2010; Stapel et al., 2010)。例如, 9個(gè)月大的嬰兒在預(yù)期他人的目標(biāo)導(dǎo)向行動(dòng)時(shí)可以檢測到運(yùn)動(dòng)神經(jīng)的活動(dòng)(Southgate et al., 2010)。一項(xiàng)2.5歲兒童的聯(lián)合行動(dòng)(Joint Action)研究證明了行動(dòng)預(yù)測對人際協(xié)調(diào)成功的重要性(Meyer et al., 2015), 能夠更準(zhǔn)確的預(yù)測同伴運(yùn)動(dòng)的兒童, 在人際協(xié)調(diào)的過程中會(huì)表現(xiàn)出更少的變異性。

3.2.3 運(yùn)動(dòng)執(zhí)行和運(yùn)動(dòng)噪音(Motor Executing and Motor Noise)

在同步化運(yùn)動(dòng)中, 運(yùn)動(dòng)計(jì)劃(Motor Planning)的下一步是運(yùn)動(dòng)執(zhí)行(Motor Executing)。但個(gè)體在執(zhí)行運(yùn)動(dòng)指令的過程中會(huì)不可避免地產(chǎn)生運(yùn)動(dòng)噪音(Motor Noise) (Friston, 2010), 從而給同步運(yùn)動(dòng)帶來額外的變異性。運(yùn)動(dòng)噪音的大小與神經(jīng)元發(fā)放的變異性密切相關(guān)(Jones et al., 2002)。同時(shí)它還和肌肉纖維的變異性、感知外部世界的不確定性(Faisal et al., 2008; Wolpert, 2007)、運(yùn)動(dòng)幅度(Jones et al., 2002; van Beers, 2009)相關(guān)。運(yùn)動(dòng)的幅度和強(qiáng)度越大, 肌肉發(fā)出的力量越強(qiáng), 其力量的變異性就會(huì)越大, 運(yùn)動(dòng)噪音也會(huì)越大(Jones et al., 2002; van Beers, 2009)。

運(yùn)動(dòng)執(zhí)行能力, 特別是運(yùn)動(dòng)噪音, 會(huì)影響同步運(yùn)動(dòng)的績效。與成年人相比, 兒童執(zhí)行各種運(yùn)動(dòng)任務(wù), 如抓握(Kuhtz-Buschbeck et al., 1998)、肘部彎曲(Jansen-Osmann et al., 2002)和快速目標(biāo)導(dǎo)向的手臂運(yùn)動(dòng)(Yan & Thomas, 2002)時(shí), 都表現(xiàn)出更大的運(yùn)動(dòng)變異性。因此, 兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步中的不穩(wěn)定性, 很有可能和兒童的運(yùn)動(dòng)噪音過大相關(guān)。此外, 由于兒童的運(yùn)動(dòng)控制能力和協(xié)調(diào)能力比較差, 如果同步化運(yùn)動(dòng)的動(dòng)作比較復(fù)雜, 也會(huì)影響運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的表現(xiàn)。

綜上, 兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的表現(xiàn)不僅受到運(yùn)動(dòng)方式、節(jié)奏刺激類型、同步對象等實(shí)驗(yàn)操控條件的影響, 還受到時(shí)間感知、運(yùn)動(dòng)計(jì)劃和運(yùn)動(dòng)執(zhí)行三大認(rèn)知因素的影響。在同步運(yùn)動(dòng)過程中, 個(gè)體要想獲得好的同步表現(xiàn), 既要有良好的時(shí)間感知和節(jié)奏感知能力, 提前對自己的動(dòng)作結(jié)果形成預(yù)期, 還要在動(dòng)作執(zhí)行過程中盡量減少運(yùn)動(dòng)噪音, 并能根據(jù)雙方的同步情況及時(shí)做出調(diào)整。

4 人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的非典型發(fā)展

孤獨(dú)癥(Autism Spectrum Disorders, ASD)兒童的核心特征是社會(huì)互動(dòng)缺陷和溝通障礙(American Psychiatric Association, 2013), 并伴發(fā)運(yùn)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的異常表現(xiàn)(Fournier et al., 2010)。由于人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步發(fā)生在人與人之間的互動(dòng)溝通中, 會(huì)對親社會(huì)行為產(chǎn)生促進(jìn)作用(Cirelli, 2018; Macpherson et al., 2020; Mogan et al., 2017; Rauchbauer & Grosbras, 2020; Rennung & G?ritz, 2016), 因此近年來研究者們開始研究孤獨(dú)癥兒童的人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的行為表現(xiàn)及其影響因素, 探索社會(huì)互動(dòng)干預(yù)方案治療兒童孤獨(dú)癥的可能性。

4.1 孤獨(dú)癥兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步困難的表現(xiàn)

與健康兒童相比, 孤獨(dú)癥兒童的人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步呈現(xiàn)出非典型特點(diǎn), 即自發(fā)性同步水平較低, 同步表現(xiàn)更差(Brezis et al., 2017; Fitzpatrick et al., 2016; Fitzpatrick et al., 2017; Kaur et al., 2018; Marsh et al., 2013) 。

例如, 在和父母一起執(zhí)行的同步運(yùn)動(dòng)任務(wù)搖椅子(rocking)中, 與健康兒童相比, 孤獨(dú)癥兒童參與其中、自發(fā)同步的水平較低(Fitzpatrick et al., 2016; Marsh et al., 2013)。同步搖手?jǐn)[時(shí), 孤獨(dú)癥兒童的動(dòng)作更滯后且更加不穩(wěn)定(Marsh et al., 2013);同步擊鼓、拍手和行走時(shí), 孤獨(dú)癥兒童的同步準(zhǔn)確率也更低(Fitzpatrick et al., 2017; Kaur et al., 2018)。值得注意的是, 孤獨(dú)癥兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的行為表現(xiàn)與他們孤獨(dú)癥癥狀的嚴(yán)重程度正相關(guān), 即癥狀嚴(yán)重的孤獨(dú)癥兒童, 其人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的表現(xiàn)更差(Su et al., 2020)。

4.2 孤獨(dú)癥兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步困難的制約因素

為什么孤獨(dú)癥兒童會(huì)呈現(xiàn)出非典型的人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步特點(diǎn), 他們的同步表現(xiàn)受到哪些制約因素的影響？有研究認(rèn)為孤獨(dú)癥兒童很難將感覺信息的輸入和動(dòng)作輸出在時(shí)間上做到同步, 這和該群體的時(shí)間處理能力及運(yùn)動(dòng)執(zhí)行能力有關(guān)(Bloch et al., 2019)。

首先, 在時(shí)間感知和節(jié)奏感知方面, 孤獨(dú)癥兒童具有非典型的時(shí)間加工特點(diǎn), 這對其人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步有重要影響。有研究認(rèn)為, 時(shí)間處理包含運(yùn)動(dòng)時(shí)間(motor timing)和知覺時(shí)間(perceptual timing) (Isaksson et al., 2018)。研究發(fā)現(xiàn)在使用自由敲擊鍵盤任務(wù)評估兒童的運(yùn)動(dòng)時(shí)間(motor timing)時(shí), 孤獨(dú)癥兒童的敲擊速度要比健康兒童更快(Isaksson et al., 2018)。由于兒童運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的發(fā)展趨勢是由快到慢、逐漸適應(yīng)更慢節(jié)奏的過程, 孤獨(dú)癥兒童對較快節(jié)奏的偏好體現(xiàn)了他們在同步行為發(fā)展上的滯后狀態(tài)。另外, 在秒下時(shí)間的同時(shí)辨別任務(wù)(simultaneity judgement)上, 孤獨(dú)癥兒童的時(shí)間差別閾限要高于健康兒童(Isaksson et al., 2018), 這在孤獨(dú)癥成人群體中也得到了驗(yàn)證(Falter et al., 2012)。

其次, 孤獨(dú)癥群體在運(yùn)動(dòng)計(jì)劃與運(yùn)動(dòng)預(yù)測上反應(yīng)時(shí)間更長(Gonzalez et al., 2013), 很可能因此影響到其運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的表現(xiàn)。在不同年齡段的孤獨(dú)癥兒童群體中, 研究者們較為一致地發(fā)現(xiàn)他們在簡單的目標(biāo)導(dǎo)向抓取任務(wù)中反應(yīng)時(shí)間的變異性比健康兒童更大(Dowd et al., 2012; Glazebrook et al., 2009; Glazebrook et al., 2006)。研究者們認(rèn)為更長的反應(yīng)時(shí)、更高的變異性反映了孤獨(dú)癥兒童在運(yùn)動(dòng)計(jì)劃上的異常。另外, 成功的人際協(xié)調(diào)任務(wù)需要參與者在運(yùn)動(dòng)計(jì)劃過程中考慮對方的行為并根據(jù)對方的行為調(diào)整自己的行動(dòng)(Bloch et al., 2019)。在物品傳遞合作任務(wù)中, 孤獨(dú)癥患者更少評估和預(yù)期對方的抓握動(dòng)作舒適度, 抓握位置的變異性也更大(Gonzalez et al., 2013)。這種適應(yīng)對方行為并根據(jù)對方動(dòng)作自我調(diào)節(jié)的能力與孤獨(dú)癥患者癥狀呈正相關(guān), 即癥狀越嚴(yán)重, 適應(yīng)和調(diào)節(jié)能力越差(Curioni et al., 2017)。

最后, 在運(yùn)動(dòng)執(zhí)行方面, 孤獨(dú)癥兒童的精細(xì)動(dòng)作、粗大動(dòng)作以及姿勢控制等運(yùn)動(dòng)能力均受損, 這一定程度上影響到了他們?nèi)穗H運(yùn)動(dòng)同步表現(xiàn)。動(dòng)作笨拙是孤獨(dú)癥患者臨床表現(xiàn)的一個(gè)主要特征(Ghaziuddin & Butler, 1998)。被診斷患有孤獨(dú)癥的人群中, 約80%存在運(yùn)動(dòng)障礙(Fournier et al., 2010; Pan et al., 2009), 他們在精細(xì)動(dòng)作和粗大動(dòng)作的運(yùn)動(dòng)協(xié)調(diào)、雙手手臂的協(xié)調(diào)以及復(fù)雜動(dòng)作的執(zhí)行上都有困難(Isenhower et al., 2012; Jansiewicz et al., 2006; Minshew et al., 2004; Mostofsky et al., 2006)。孤獨(dú)癥群體用于運(yùn)動(dòng)計(jì)劃和預(yù)測的感覺輸入整合能力較差, 運(yùn)動(dòng)輸出具有不穩(wěn)定性, 運(yùn)動(dòng)噪音更大(Gowen & Hamilton, 2013)。而對于孤獨(dú)癥兒童, 研究發(fā)現(xiàn)他們有明顯的快速運(yùn)動(dòng)(Anzulewiczet al., 2016)、急促而不流暢的肢體動(dòng)作(Cook et al., 2013)、非典型步態(tài)(Dufek et al., 2017; Eggleston et al., 2018; Gong et al., 2020)、姿勢搖擺(Doumas et al., 2016)以及動(dòng)作輸出不穩(wěn)定性(Kaur et al., 2018; Parma & de Marchena, 2016)。

綜上, 人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步能夠促進(jìn)親社會(huì)行為, 但孤獨(dú)癥兒童這一特殊群體在同步化運(yùn)動(dòng)上存在困難。因此, 探究孤獨(dú)癥兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步表現(xiàn)并發(fā)現(xiàn)背后的制約因素顯得尤為重要。時(shí)間處理的缺陷以及運(yùn)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的異?？赡苁窃撊后w人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步困難的潛在制約因素。有研究認(rèn)為, 孤獨(dú)癥兒童運(yùn)動(dòng)同步上的異常表現(xiàn)會(huì)影響其社交能力的發(fā)展(Bloch et al., 2019; Casartelli et al., 2016; Gallese et al., 2013)。在日常交往過程中, 人們在和他人互動(dòng)時(shí)往往會(huì)保持時(shí)間上默契和協(xié)調(diào)、動(dòng)作上的同步, 這也會(huì)促進(jìn)雙方社交關(guān)系的發(fā)展。如果孤獨(dú)癥兒童在早期就無法做到和他人在動(dòng)作上的協(xié)調(diào)一致, 這也很可能影響到他們后續(xù)社交能力的發(fā)展。

5 總結(jié)與展望

本文聚焦兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的發(fā)展過程和影響因素, 并對孤獨(dú)癥兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的研究進(jìn)行了梳理。綜合以往的文獻(xiàn), 我們發(fā)現(xiàn)健康兒童的人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步能力隨著年齡的增長不斷提升, 其表現(xiàn)會(huì)受到運(yùn)動(dòng)方式、節(jié)奏刺激類型、同步對象的影響, 以及時(shí)間感知、運(yùn)動(dòng)計(jì)劃和運(yùn)動(dòng)執(zhí)行三大認(rèn)知因素的制約。孤獨(dú)癥兒童時(shí)間處理呈現(xiàn)非典型加工的特點(diǎn), 加上運(yùn)動(dòng)能力受損, 從而影響他們?nèi)穗H運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的表現(xiàn)。

人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步是日常社會(huì)互動(dòng)中非常重要的一部分, 在兒童發(fā)展的過程中有其特有的規(guī)律。如果兒童從出生開始就缺乏人際互動(dòng), 可能導(dǎo)致他們未來社會(huì)和情感發(fā)展困難, 并影響兒童自我調(diào)節(jié)以及建立親密關(guān)系的能力(Feldman, 2007)。因此, 兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的相關(guān)研究顯得極為重要。通過文獻(xiàn)的綜述, 人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步在兒童發(fā)展領(lǐng)域, 還有三方面亟待進(jìn)一步研究。

首先, 已有的研究表明, 兒童很早就發(fā)展出相當(dāng)?shù)墓?jié)奏感知能力(Baruch & Drake, 1997; Hannon & Johnson, 2005)。那為什么兒童在有意識(shí)的參與擊鼓、舞蹈等人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步時(shí), 要經(jīng)過好幾年的時(shí)間發(fā)展才能達(dá)到成人水平？很大程度上, 這可能和兒童的運(yùn)動(dòng)控制系統(tǒng)發(fā)育相對滯后有關(guān)(Trainor & Cirelli, 2015)。也就是說, 運(yùn)動(dòng)能力發(fā)展受限, 影響到兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的表現(xiàn)。但目前還沒有看到有關(guān)運(yùn)動(dòng)影響兒童同步表現(xiàn)的相關(guān)研究, 需要進(jìn)一步的探究。此外, 兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步與非人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的發(fā)展軌跡是否完全相等, 也值得進(jìn)一步的探討。

其次, 對于健康兒童來說, 其人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的表現(xiàn)比非人際同步表現(xiàn)更好, 原因可能是兒童和人一起做同步化運(yùn)動(dòng)更能激發(fā)他們的內(nèi)在動(dòng)機(jī)(Kirschner & Tomasello, 2009)。但這一表現(xiàn), 在孤獨(dú)癥兒童身上結(jié)果正好相反。有研究表明孤獨(dú)癥兒童與人一起擊鼓時(shí)的表現(xiàn)比單獨(dú)擊鼓時(shí)的表現(xiàn)更差(Yoo & Kim, 2018)。這背后的原因到底是什么？是因?yàn)楣陋?dú)癥兒童人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步時(shí)的社會(huì)動(dòng)機(jī)不足, 還是因?yàn)樗麄兊倪\(yùn)動(dòng)控制本身就存在困難有待進(jìn)一步研究。另外, 孤獨(dú)癥兒童的社交互動(dòng)缺陷通?？梢詺w因于整個(gè)發(fā)育過程中的連續(xù)性惡化, 但也有研究假設(shè)認(rèn)為孤獨(dú)癥兒童社交能力缺陷可以歸因于兒童早期的運(yùn)動(dòng)系統(tǒng)發(fā)育的滯后, 因而影響到他們參與未來的社交活動(dòng)(Casartelli et al., 2016; Gallese et al., 2013)。對這一問題的探究有助于我們了解孤獨(dú)癥兒童社交發(fā)育障礙的原因, 進(jìn)而發(fā)展?jié)撛诘纳缃桓深A(yù)療法。

最后, 人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步對于健康兒童社交能力和親社會(huì)行為有促進(jìn)作用, 但這一結(jié)果在孤獨(dú)癥群體中的研究結(jié)果不一致, 有研究表明人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的干預(yù)措施對社交和親社會(huì)行為有促進(jìn)作用(Koehne et al., 2016)。另一些研究發(fā)現(xiàn)并沒有顯著變化(Landa et al., 2011), 例如2～3歲的孤獨(dú)癥兒童在接受人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步的干預(yù)措施后, 雖然在模仿任務(wù)上表現(xiàn)更好, 但聯(lián)合注意和社交情感并沒有顯著增加(Landa et al., 2011)。針對孤獨(dú)癥成人患者的研究結(jié)果也表明, 盡管他們在同步行為上有所改善, 但干預(yù)前后同理心的表現(xiàn)并未顯著變化(Koehne et al., 2016)。人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步在孤獨(dú)癥群體的干預(yù)效果并不理想的原因還需要進(jìn)一步探究。未來的研究需要進(jìn)一步細(xì)化干預(yù)措施的影響, 如干預(yù)手段有沒有考慮到孤獨(dú)癥兒童的運(yùn)動(dòng)能力, 干預(yù)的節(jié)奏速度是否在兒童承受的范圍之內(nèi), 干預(yù)的持續(xù)時(shí)間和同步刺激類型的選擇等。只有對這些具體的影響因素進(jìn)行更精細(xì)的研究, 才能更好地發(fā)揮人際運(yùn)動(dòng)同步在孤獨(dú)癥兒童當(dāng)中的作用。

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Interpersonal motor synchronization in children

ZHANG Linlin1,2, WEI Kunlin3, LI Jing1,2

(1CAS Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China)(2Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China)(3School of Psychological and Cognitive Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100080, China)

Interpersonal motor synchronization is a form of "social glue", which could promotes children to generate prosocial behaviors. The ability for children to synchronize motor interpersonally gradually improves across the developmental process. Their performance could be affected by various factors, such as the movement pattern, the rhythmic of the stimuli, and whom they synchronize with. In the process of interpersonal motor synchronization, it consists of three cognitive components: time perception, motor planning, and motor execution. Interpersonal motor synchronization affects both the development of individual synchronization ability and subsequent performance. In addition, children with autism spectrum disorder, a neurodevelopmental disorder, usually show abnormal behavior in interpersonal motor synchronization. For this reason, future research should not be limited to the exploration of the underlying mechanism of the abnormal interpersonal motor synchronization on children with autism, but also pay more attention to the intervention effect of the interpersonal synchronization training.

interpersonal motor synchronization, prosocial, cognitive mechanism, autism spectrum disorders

2021-04-13

* 國家自然科學(xué)基金項(xiàng)目(31971009), 國家自然科學(xué)基金項(xiàng)目(32071047)和中國科學(xué)院青年創(chuàng)新促進(jìn)會(huì)資助。

李晶, E-mail: lij@psych.ac.cn

B844