By Barbara Krasner-Khait

藝壇

Survivor: The History of the Library

By Barbara Krasner-Khait

The collection of written knowledge in some sort of repository is a practice as old as civilization itself. About 30,000 clay tablets found in ancient Mesopotamia date back more than 5,000 years. Archaelogists have uncovered papyrus scrolls from 1300–1200bc in the ancient Egyptian cities of Amarna and Thebes and thousands of clay tablets in the palace of King Sennacherib, Assyrian ruler from 704–681bc, at Nineveh, his capital city. More evidence turned up with the discovery of the personal collection of Sennacherib’s grandson, King Ashurbanipal.

[2] The name for the repository eventually became the library. Whether private or public, the library has been founded, built, destroyed and rebuilt. The library, often championed1champion捍衛(wèi)；聲援。, has been a survivor throughout its long history and serves as a testament to the thirst for knowledge.

將書面知識(shí)匯集于某種形式的庫藏，這種做法和文明本身一樣古老。在美索不達(dá)米亞發(fā)現(xiàn)的約30,000塊泥板可追溯至5,000年前?？脊艑W(xué)家已經(jīng)在古埃及城市阿瑪納和底比斯發(fā)現(xiàn)公元前1300年到前1200年間的紙草書卷，又在亞述王西拿基立位于都城尼尼微的宮殿里發(fā)掘出數(shù)千片泥板，他曾于公元前704年到前681年統(tǒng)治亞述。此外，西拿基立之孫、亞述王亞述巴尼拔個(gè)人收藏被發(fā)現(xiàn)后，更多證據(jù)隨之浮現(xiàn)。

[2]這種庫藏最終得名“圖書館”。無論公共還是私人，圖書館奠基、建設(shè)、毀滅和重建自此不息。作為一項(xiàng)常獲襄助的事業(yè)，圖書館在其自身漫長的歷史中幸存下來，并成為渴求知識(shí)的明證。

Literacy Builds Libraries

[3] Early collections may have surfaced from the Near East, but the ancient Greeks propelled the idea through their heightened interest in literacy and intellectual life. Public and private libraries flourished through a well-established process: authors wrote on a variety of subjects, scriptoria or copy shops produced the books, and book dealers sold them. Copying books was an exacting business and one in high demand, because a book’s“trustworthiness” translated into quality. An Athenian decree called for a repository of “trustworthy” copies. Though the public library first appeared by the fourth century bc, the private library was more prevalent. Aristotle, for instance, amassed a large private collection. Ancient geographer Strabo said Aristotle “was the first to have put together a collection of books and to have taught the kings in Egypt how to arrange a library.”

The Great Library

[4] That library, of course, was the Great Library of Alexandria, a public library open to those with the proper scholarly and literary qualifications, founded about 300bc. When Egypt’s King Ptolemy I (305–282bc) asked,“How many scrolls do we have?”, Aristotle’s disciple Demetrius of Phalerum was on hand to answer with the latest count. After all, it was Demetrius who suggested setting up a universal library to hold copies of all the books in the world. Ptolemy and his successors wanted to understand the people under their rule and house Latin, Buddhist, Persian, Hebrew, and Egyptian works—translated into Greek.

讀寫能力造就圖書館

[3]圖書收藏可能最早出現(xiàn)在近東地區(qū)，然而將圖書館發(fā)揚(yáng)光大的是熱衷于讀寫和知性生活的古希臘人。公共和私人圖書館流程完善，蓬勃興起：作家創(chuàng)作各種題材的作品，復(fù)寫店抄文整理出書，再經(jīng)書商對(duì)外銷售。書籍復(fù)寫是一份要求甚嚴(yán)、需求甚高的職業(yè)，因?yàn)闀摹翱尚哦取睕Q定了質(zhì)量。雅典曾頒布一條法令，將“可信的”書籍復(fù)寫本匯于一室。第一座公共圖書館建于公元前4世紀(jì)，而私人圖書館則更為普遍。比如亞里士多德就有私人藏書，且規(guī)制浩瀚。古羅馬地理學(xué)家斯特拉波如此評(píng)論，亞里士多德“是第一個(gè)將圖書集納歸整的人，也是第一個(gè)指導(dǎo)埃及諸王如何興建圖書館的人”。

至尊圖書館

[4]無疑，那座圖書館就是亞歷山大至尊圖書館，設(shè)立于約公元前300年，向具有適當(dāng)學(xué)術(shù)和讀寫能力的人開放。埃及國王托勒密一世（公元前305年－前282年）曾問道：“我們有多少卷軸？”亞里士多德的門徒、法勒魯姆人德米特里剛好在場(chǎng)，回答了最近清點(diǎn)的數(shù)目。畢竟，是德米特里建議設(shè)立一座通用圖書館，用以收藏世界上所有圖書的副本。托勒密及其繼承人想理解其治下的人民，館藏了拉丁、佛教、波斯、希伯萊以及埃及文獻(xiàn)——當(dāng)然都翻譯成了希臘文。

[5] The library’s lofty goal was to collect a half-million scrolls and the Ptolemies took serious steps to accomplish it. Ptolemy I, for example, composed a letter to all the sovereigns and governors he knew, imploring them“not to hesitate to send him” works by authors of every kind.

[6] The Ptolemies engaged in some unorthodox acquisition methods. Some stories relate that they confiscated any book not already in the library from passengers arriving in Alexandria. Another story tells how Ptolemy III (246–222bc) deceived Athenian authorities when they let him borrow original manuscripts of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, using silver as collateral2collateral抵押物；擔(dān)保品。. Ptolemy kept the originals and sent the copies back, letting the authorities keep the silver. More traditional means included book purchases from the markets of Athens, Rhodes and other Mediterranean cities. Older copies were the favored acquisitions; the older the better, since they would be considered more trustworthy. At its height, the library held nearly 750,000 scrolls. There must have been duplicates since there weren’t that many works.

[5]圖書館的宏偉目標(biāo)是囊括50萬卷軸，為了實(shí)現(xiàn)這個(gè)理想，托勒密家族不辭勞苦。比如，托勒密一世曾向世界上所有其知悉的君主和總督修書，懇請(qǐng)他們“不吝寄送”各類作者的著作。

[6]托勒密家族還采取了一些不同尋常的巧取手段。據(jù)傳，托勒密家族曾向抵達(dá)亞歷山大的旅人強(qiáng)征圖書館未收的任何書冊(cè)。還有傳聞?wù)f，雅典政府曾許可托勒密三世（公元前246年－前222年）外借埃斯庫羅斯、索福克勒斯及歐里庇得斯手稿原件，且以銀子作抵押。但托勒密三世卻扣下原稿，奉還復(fù)寫稿，任由希臘政府留存抵押的銀子。當(dāng)然，托勒密家族更常用的方式還是從雅典、羅德島及其他地中海城市的集市買書。他們傾向于買古書，且越古越好，因?yàn)樗麄冋J(rèn)為這些書更可信。圖書館鼎盛時(shí)期藏書近750,000卷。有的書肯定重復(fù)收錄了，因?yàn)楫?dāng)時(shí)沒那么多書。

[7] Much of what is now considered to be literary scholarship began in the Alexandria Library. Funds from the royal treasury paid the chief librarian and his scholarly staff. Physically, books were not what we think of today, but rather scrolls, mostly made of papyrus, but sometimes of leather. They were kept in pigeonholes with titles written on wooden tags hung from their outer ends.

[8] Fires and depredations during the Roman period gradually destroyed the Library. When Julius Caesar occupied Alexandria in 48bc, Cleopatra urged him to help himself to the books. Obliging, he shipped tens of thousands to Rome. Marc Antony was rumored to have given Cleopatra the 200,000-scroll collection of rival library Pergamum to replace Alexandria’s losses.

[9] Thanks to the Great Library, Alexandria assumed its position as the intellectual capital of the world and provided a model for other libraries to follow.

When in Rome

[10] By the middle of the second century bc, Rome also boasted rich library resources. Initially comprised of some scattered private collections,holdings eventually expanded through the spoils of war. Even Aristotle’s famed collection was among the bounty.

[7]許多當(dāng)代認(rèn)定的文學(xué)研究均始于亞歷山大圖書館。館長及其學(xué)術(shù)團(tuán)隊(duì)的薪資由王室內(nèi)帑給付。從形態(tài)上來說，當(dāng)時(shí)的書不是我們今人認(rèn)為的“書本”，而是“書卷”，材質(zhì)多為羊皮紙，有時(shí)也用皮革。這些書卷分門別類存放，書名寫在木牌上，掛在書卷外端。

[8]羅馬帝國時(shí)期，幾場(chǎng)大火和幾次劫掠讓圖書館逐步衰敗。公元前48年，尤里烏斯·愷撒征服亞歷山大。對(duì)那些書，克婁巴特拉敦促愷撒自便。愷撒自然樂于遵命，于是乎將數(shù)以萬計(jì)的書運(yùn)往羅馬。后來，相傳馬克·安東尼為彌補(bǔ)亞歷山大圖書館的損失，將其競(jìng)爭對(duì)手帕加馬圖書館的200,000卷藏書贈(zèng)予克婁巴特拉。

[9]至尊圖書館讓亞歷山大一舉成為世界知識(shí)之都，也成為其他圖書館模仿的標(biāo)桿。

羅馬時(shí)期

[10]到公元前2世紀(jì)中葉，羅馬的圖書館資源也十分豐富。起初，只包括零星私人藏書，但戰(zhàn)爭所得逐漸擴(kuò)大了藏品規(guī)模，甚至包括亞里士多德的著名藏書。

[11] Julius Caesar dreamed of establishing a public library in Rome, but his vision was cut short by his assassination. After Caesar’s death, Asinius Pollio acquired the requisite funds to make the dream a reality. The library was divided into two sections—one for Greek and one for Latin, serving as a model for subsequent Roman libraries. Great statues adorned the walls. Books, typically acquired through donations by authors and others, as well as through copying, were placed along the walls and readers consulted them in the middle of the room. This marked a distinct departure from the Greek model, where readers could only consult their books in an atrium away from the rest of the collection.

[12] To serve as director of a library was a great honor. The role became a stepping stone for the ambitious government servant. Staffs consisted of slaves and freedmen, who were assigned to either the Greek or the Latin section. Pages fetched rolls from the systematically arranged and tagged bookcases and returned them. They usually transported the rolls in leather or wood buckets. Scribes made copies to be added to the collection and recopied damaged rolls, while keeping the catalog up to date. Libraries were typically open during standard business hours—sunrise to midday.

[11]尤里烏斯·愷撒夢(mèng)想在羅馬建造一座公共圖書館，但他的宏圖卻因其慘遭暗殺而未得施展。愷撒死后，阿西紐斯·波利奧籌措了必要的資金，終使夢(mèng)想成真。該圖書館分為希臘語和拉丁語兩大館藏，奠定了后世羅馬圖書館的基本結(jié)構(gòu)。精美的雕塑裝飾館內(nèi)墻面。書籍主要來源于作家等捐贈(zèng)，當(dāng)然也包括復(fù)寫圖書。所有書籍沿墻擺放，讀者在屋內(nèi)即可翻閱，而希臘圖書館里，讀者必須在與其他藏書分隔開的中廳里閱讀。這是希臘和羅馬圖書館的主要差異所在。

[12]圖書館館長是顯耀之職，后為抱負(fù)不凡的政府官吏進(jìn)身之階。圖書館工作人員包括奴隸和自由民，他們受命管理希臘語館藏或拉丁語館藏。侍從負(fù)責(zé)將書卷從整齊排布并做好標(biāo)記的書架上取下，再將之歸還。書卷運(yùn)送通常使用皮桶或木桶。抄寫員抄寫新添書籍，或重新抄寫破損書卷，同時(shí)更新目錄。圖書館一般在常規(guī)營業(yè)時(shí)間對(duì)外開放，即從日出到正午。

[13] Rome had only three public libraries at the time of Augustus’ death in 14ad: Pollio’s, one in the Porticus of Octavia, and Augustus’ on the Palatine Hill. When Trajan (98–117ad) dedicated his monumental column in 112–113, a library (sectioned into the traditional Greek and Latin chambers) was part of it. Much of the interior still exists today. The collection there grew to include some 20,000 volumes. Still, libraries remained the domain of the learned: teachers, scientists, scholars. Where were the masses to go? To the imperial baths, of course! At the baths, men and women, rich and poor could take a bath, meet with friends, play ball—and read a book. Libraries were added to the baths until the third century. A catalog of Rome’s buildings from about 350ad enumerated 29 libraries in the city. But in 378, the historian Ammianus Marcellinus commented, “The libraries are closing forever, like tombs.” As the Roman Empire fell, libraries seemed doomed to extinction.

Monasticism transforms the library

[14] In the early 300s in Egypt, a man named Pachomius established a monastery and insisted on literacy among his monks. This was to have a long-lasting effect even after the Roman Empire split in two about 100 years later. Throughout the rest of the eastern empire, monastic communities emerged with small and mostly theological libraries.

[13]公元14年奧古斯都去世時(shí)，羅馬僅有三座公共圖書館：一座由波利奧所建，位于屋大維柱廊內(nèi)；一座由奧古斯都建立，位于帕拉蒂尼山頂；還有一座由圖拉真（公元98－117）建立（依據(jù)傳統(tǒng)分為希臘語和拉丁語兩區(qū)），是公元112－113年落成的圖拉真記功柱的一部分。圖拉真圖書館大部分內(nèi)飾留存至今，藏書多達(dá)20,000冊(cè)。然而，當(dāng)時(shí)的圖書館仍然只是有學(xué)問之人的領(lǐng)域，比如教師、科學(xué)家、學(xué)者。大眾呢？當(dāng)然是去皇家浴場(chǎng)。在那里，男男女女，無論貧富，都可洗浴、會(huì)友、戲球，或者看書。3世紀(jì)前，浴場(chǎng)大多配有圖書館。一份來自大約公元350年的羅馬建筑目錄表明，當(dāng)時(shí)城內(nèi)共有29座圖書館。然而，公元378年，歷史學(xué)家阿米阿努斯·馬爾切利奴斯評(píng)論道：“圖書館正關(guān)上大門，如同墳?zāi)?，永不再開。”隨著羅馬帝國衰落，圖書館似乎也在劫難逃。

修道院生活改變圖書館

[14]在4世紀(jì)初的埃及，一位名叫帕科繆的男子建立了一所修道院，并要求僧侶識(shí)字讀書。這一舉措意義深遠(yuǎn)，即便約百年后羅馬帝國一分為二，仍見其影響力。東羅馬帝國地區(qū)，僧侶團(tuán)體出現(xiàn)，隨之產(chǎn)生的便是規(guī)模不大、以神學(xué)為主的圖書館。

[15] Sparked by the spread of Christianity, the eastern half of the empire did much to foster the use of libraries. The capital city of Constantinople had three major libraries: the university library, the library for the royal family and civil service and a theological collection.

[16] Even though libraries disappeared in the western empire due to invasion, lack of funds, and lack of interest, monasticism gave rise to an explosion of learning. In 529ad, Benedict established a monastery in Monte Cassino and established a rule by which the monks would live. Chapter 48 of this rule mandated: “Between Easter and the calends of October let them apply themselves to reading from the fourth hour until the sixth hour... From the calends of October to the beginning of Lent, let them apply themselves to reading until the second hour. During Lent, let them apply themselves to reading from morning until the end of the third hour, and in these days of Lent, let them receive a book apiece from the library and read it straight through. These books are to be given out at the beginning of Lent.”

[17] The Benedictines created libraries and the scriptorium became sacred. It soon became customary for monasteries to lend to other monasteries, giving birth to the interlibrary loan. Charlemagne, who owned a robust library in Aachen in the eighth century, ordered every school to have a scriptorium. The road was well paved to invite the Renaissance and a new age for libraries.

[15]由于基督教的傳播，圖書館在東半?yún)^(qū)興起。首都君士坦丁堡當(dāng)時(shí)擁有三大圖書館：大學(xué)圖書館、供皇室和政府成員使用的圖書館以及神學(xué)圖書館。

[16]由于外敵入侵，資金缺乏，加之無人關(guān)注，圖書館逐漸在西羅馬帝國消失。盡管如此，修道院生活仍催生了一股學(xué)習(xí)熱。公元529年，本篤在卡西諾山創(chuàng)建修道院，并為僧侶訂立了生活規(guī)定。第48條規(guī)定說：“復(fù)活節(jié)至十月一日，僧侶當(dāng)從四時(shí)閱讀至六時(shí)……十月一日至大齋期開始，當(dāng)閱讀至二時(shí)。大齋期內(nèi)，當(dāng)從清晨閱讀至三時(shí)結(jié)束，每人從圖書館借閱一本書，并通讀。大齋期開始時(shí)，應(yīng)分發(fā)圖書?！?/p>

[17]本篤會(huì)創(chuàng)建了圖書館，繕寫室也因而變得神圣。不久，修道院間互相借書已成慣例，這就產(chǎn)生了館際借閱。8世紀(jì)時(shí)，查理曼在亞琛擁有一座偉大的圖書館，他要求所有學(xué)校都必須設(shè)立繕寫室。至此，通向文藝復(fù)興的康莊大道已鋪就，圖書館迎來新紀(jì)元。

Renaissance of learning

[18] As Europe emerged from the depths of darkness into the light of learning, its people began to look to the Greek and Roman artistic and literary classics for inspiration. Many aristocrats of the period were dedicated to developing their private libraries. Cosimo de Medici of the famous Florentine family established his own collection, which formed the basis of the Laurentian Library. Also in Italy, the Vatican Library opened in the 1400s. Accompanying the growth of universities was the development of university libraries, which, in some cases, were founded on the basis of a personal donation. For example, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, donated his large collection to Oxford University in the early 1400s.

[19] Gutenberg’s movable type innovation in the 1400s revolutionized bookmaking. Printed books replaced handwritten manuscripts and were placed on open shelves.

學(xué)問的復(fù)興

[18]當(dāng)歐洲從黑暗的深淵向著學(xué)問的光明崛起時(shí)，歐洲人開始向希臘和羅馬的文學(xué)藝術(shù)經(jīng)典尋求靈感。當(dāng)時(shí)，諸多貴族熱衷建立私人圖書館。佛羅倫薩望族美第奇家族成員科西·莫德·美第奇所設(shè)立的私人館藏，構(gòu)成了勞倫先圖書館的基礎(chǔ)。同樣在意大利，梵蒂岡圖書館于15世紀(jì)落成。與大學(xué)同步增長的是大學(xué)圖書館，其中一些同樣基于個(gè)人捐贈(zèng)。例如，15世紀(jì)初，格洛斯特公爵漢弗里曾向牛津大學(xué)捐贈(zèng)大批個(gè)人藏書。

[19] 15世紀(jì)，谷登堡活字印刷使出版業(yè)產(chǎn)生革命性改變。印刷圖書由此取代了人工謄抄的手稿，并陳列于開放書架上。

The golden age

[20] Throughout the 1600s and 1700s, libraries surged in popularity. They grew as universities developed and as national, state-supported collections began to appear. Many of these became national libraries.

[21] In Britain, Sir Thomas Bodley rebuilt Humphrey’s library at Oxford in the late 1500s. It was renamed the Bodlean Library and today ranks as the second largest in the country. The largest, of course, is the British Library, founded in 1759 as part of the British Museum. The earliest public library in the UK was associated with London’s Guild Hall in 1425. A second opened in Edinburgh, Scotland in 1580. Neither of these still exists, but one established in 1653 in Manchester, England does. Once Parliament passed the Public Library Act in 1850, libraries began to spread throughout the nation.

[22] In France, the national library in Paris known as Bibliotheque Nationale de France began in 1367 as the Royal Library of Charles V. Another significant library, famous for its influence on library management, is the Mazarine Library, also in Paris. Cardinal Jules Mazarin, chief minister of France during Louis XIV’s minority, founded it in 1643.

[23] Building on its Roman heritage,Italy boasted several renowned libraries, including Laurentian Library in Florence, Vatican Library in Vatican City, Ambrosian Library in Milan and National Central Library in Florence, based on the collection of Antonio Magliabechi, a scholar of the 1600s and 1700s.

黃金時(shí)代

[20]到了17、18世紀(jì)，圖書館驟然廣受歡迎。隨著大學(xué)興起以及國家、國立藏書涌現(xiàn)，圖書館日益增多，其中很多成為了國家圖書館。

[21]在英國，牛津的漢弗萊公爵圖書館由托馬斯·博德利爵士于16世紀(jì)末重建，并更名為博德利3錢鍾書稱之為“飽蠹樓”。圖書館。如今它是英國第二大圖書館。最大的當(dāng)然是大英圖書館，建立于1759年，時(shí)為大英博物館的一部分。英國最早的公共圖書館建立于1425年，與倫敦市政廳相關(guān)。第二所建立于1580年，位于蘇格蘭愛丁堡。此二者均已不復(fù)存在，但1653年在英格蘭曼徹斯特市建立的一所公共圖書館存留至今。英國議會(huì)在1850年通過《公共圖書館法案》后，圖書館便在英國遍地開花。

[22]在法國，位于巴黎的國家圖書館全稱法國國家圖書館，建立于1367年，原為查理五世的皇家圖書館。法國另一座重要的圖書館是馬扎然圖書館，1643年由路易十四年幼時(shí)期的宰相儒勒·馬扎然樞機(jī)建立，同在巴黎，以其對(duì)圖書管理的影響聞名。

[24] On the Iberian peninsula, King Philip V established the National Library of Spain, Madrid in 1711. Portugal’s National Library in Lisbon appeared in 1796.

[25] Three libraries form the national repository for Germany. The first, the German State Library in Berlin, was founded in 1661 by Friedrich Wilhelm. The second and third followed much later: the German Library in Leipzig, founded in 1912 and the German Library in Frankfurt, founded in 1946.

[26] Catherine the Great founded the M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin State Public Library in St. Petersburg in the late 1700s. Russia’s largest library, the Russian State Library in Moscow (formerly the Lenin State Library), was founded in 1862.

[27] The oldest library in America41776年美國建國前的America宜譯為“美洲”，而非“美國”，之后則需視情況而定。began with a 400-book donation by a Massachusetts clergyman, John Harvard, to a new university that eventually honored him by adopting his name. Another clergyman, Thomas Bray from England, established the first free lending libraries in the American Colonies in the late 1600s. Subscription libraries—where member dues paid for book purchases and borrowing privileges were free—debuted in the 1700s. In 1731, Ben Franklin and others founded the first such library, the Library Company of Philadelphia. The initial collection of the Library of Congress was in ashes after the British burned it during the War of 1812. The library bought Thomas Jefferson’s vast collection in 1815 and used that as a foundation to rebuild.

[23]意大利繼承了羅馬時(shí)期的遺產(chǎn)，擁有若干著名圖書館，包括佛羅倫薩的勞倫先圖書館、梵蒂岡的梵蒂岡圖書館、米蘭的安波羅修圖書館和佛羅倫薩的國家中央圖書館，其藏書基于17、18世紀(jì)學(xué)者安東尼奧·馬利亞貝基的個(gè)人收藏。

[24]在伊比利亞半島，菲利普五世于1711年在馬德里創(chuàng)立了西班牙國家圖書館。1796年，葡萄牙國家圖書館于里斯本落成。

[25]在德國，國家圖書庫由三座圖書館構(gòu)成。首先是柏林的德國國立圖書館，由腓特烈·威廉在1661年創(chuàng)立。第二、第三座則晚許多年，分別是1912年建立的萊比錫德國圖書館和1946年落成的法蘭克福德國圖書館。

[26] 18世紀(jì)末，凱瑟琳大帝在圣彼得堡建立了薩爾特科夫·謝德林國立公共圖書館。俄羅斯最大的圖書館——位于莫斯科的俄羅斯國立圖書館（原為列寧國立圖書館）——建立于1862年。

[27]美洲最早的圖書館始自400本由馬薩諸塞州牧師約翰·哈佛捐贈(zèng)給一個(gè)新辦大學(xué)的藏書，這所大學(xué)最終以他的名字命名，以作紀(jì)念。17世紀(jì)末，另一名來自英格蘭的牧師托馬斯·布雷在美洲殖民地建立了第一座供自由借閱的圖書館。18世紀(jì)，訂閱圖書館嶄露頭角，會(huì)員交納會(huì)費(fèi)購書，還可免費(fèi)借書。1731年，本杰明·富蘭克林等人建立了第一所訂閱圖書館，名為費(fèi)城圖書俱樂部。1812年美國第二次獨(dú)立戰(zhàn)爭期間，國會(huì)圖書館的創(chuàng)館藏書為英軍燒毀；1815年，圖書館購入托馬斯·杰斐遜的藏書，數(shù)量宏富，并以此為基礎(chǔ)重建。

[28] It wasn’t until waves of immigration and the philosophy of free public education for children that public libraries spread in the US. The first public library in the country opened in Peterborough, New Hampshire, in 1833. Philanthropist Andrew Carnegie helped build more than 1,700 public libraries in the US between 1881 and 1919.

[29] Libraries may have changed over the years—no longer do pages carry scrolls in wooden buckets—but the need for a repository of knowledge remains. ■

[28]直到移民潮出現(xiàn)和兒童免費(fèi)公共教育理念興起，美國才出現(xiàn)大量公共圖書館。1833年，第一座公共圖書館在新罕布什爾州彼得伯勒落成。1881年至1919年間，慈善家安德魯·卡內(nèi)基資助建造了逾1,700座公共圖書館。

[29]歲月流逝，圖書館或許也因之而變遷——卷軸和木質(zhì)卷筒不復(fù)存在——但對(duì)知識(shí)寶藏的需求，始終未變。 □

幸存者：圖書館發(fā)展史

文/芭芭拉·克拉斯納－海特 譯/楊樹鋒

（譯者單位：其禮律師事務(wù)所上海辦公室）