【Abstract】This article is a critical review of the development of language learning strategies （LLS） in EFL. It reviews the theoretical framework of language learning strategies and empirical research. Based on the review，it critically discusses the implications and limitations of the framework and research behind the construction of the theory.

【Key words】Language learning strategies； implication； limitation

1. Introduction

Strategies are “operations employed by learners to aid the acquisition，storage，retrieval and use of information，specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier，faster，more enjoyable，more self-directed，more effective and more transferable to mew situations” （Oxford，2001）. From this conception，learning strategies studies mainly focus on learners performance and how learning strategies facilitate learning performance. There is a growing interest from the 1980s and early 1990s in investigation on how language learners monitor their language learning，and research has been carried out to describe the behavior and thoughts process by language learners （Chamot，2005）.

Studies on language learning strategies （LLS） mainly focus on learners language learning behaviors and processes. This trend of study is determined by the shift of teacher-centered language study on methodologies to learner-centered learners learning behaviors study. The results of studies are used to facilitate language learners learning. Therefore，studies on language learning strategies are mostly carried out from the perspective of language learners.

2. Theoretical framework of LLS

Language learners performances are studied mainly descriptively. Language learners behaviors and thoughts process are observed and tracked to discover strategies language learners use in their learning process. Characteristics of “good language learners” are identified by comparing the strategies used by successful learners and unsuccessful learners. Research has showed that “good language learners” have their special ways in learning. These research results lead to an assumption that LLS can be taught to learners，and experimental studies have been carried out to identify the effects of learning strategies instruction on students （Chamot，2005）.

LLS have been mainly classified into six types： cognitive，mnemonic，metacognitive，compensatory，affective and social （Oxford，2001）. Cognitive strategies are the approaches that language learners making use of known knowledge to learn new knowledge，such as guessing from context，analyzing，synthesizing，reasoning etc. These learning strategies are known as “higher thinking skills” （Oxford，2001，p. 167）. Mnemonic strategies are commonly used by language learners，mostly related to memorizing language items by repetition. Metacognitive strategies are about what language learners know about language learning and also language learners beliefs about language learning. According Phakiti （2003），metacognitive strategies are learners “deliberate mental behaviors for directing and controlling their cognitive strategy processing for successful performance” （p. 30）. Therefore，metacognitive strategies are beyond cognitive strategies and control cognition behaviors in the process of language learning. They help students know themselves better as language learners. Compensatory strategies are strategies for speaking and writing. Affective strategies are mainly about motivation and attitude to language learning. Research has shown that positive motivation and attitude are essential to effective language learning. Social strategies are related to the effect of background and culture of the language that learners learning（Oxford，2001）.

Variables that affect LLS have been studied by researchers. LLSare influenced by many factors，such as motivation，language learning environment，learning style，personality type，gender，culture or national origin，career orientation，age and nature of the language tasks （Oxford，2001）. According to Gus study （2003），language learners use different learning strategies based on their language learning context，tasks and learners personalities. Phakiti （2003） has studied the relationship between gender and strategy use in L2 reading and investigated the gender differences on strategy use.

Research on strategy instruction has been carried out based on the assumption that learning strategies are teachable. Finding of differences in strategy use between successful language learners and less successful ones lead to assumption that it might be helpful to teach less successful language learners the learning strategies that those successful learners are using. Learning strategies are like knowledge，and learners learn and remember this knowledge and make use of them.

3. Empirical research on LLS

Empirical studies have been carried on description of language learners learning behaviors and mental processes. Data of learners learning behaviors are usually gathered by observation. However，learners mental processes are invisible. To gain an insight into these mental activities，besides observation，self-report is used in research. By this retrospective interview，such as interviews，questionnaires，diaries and journals and think-aloud protocols，researchers generate the learning strategies that the subjects use in the process of learning under the given task.

In the study of Gu （2003），think-aloud protocols and interviews were applied. Two successful non-English-major EFL learners at a university in China have been studied on how they handled vocabulary learning during and after reading. Gu believed that “a successful learner is a learning theorist” （p. 73） and he had constructed a context-task based learning strategies thought. He claimed that learners choices of learning strategies are affected by their EFL learning environment，the task of EFL learning and learners personality. In his research，he gathered the learning strategies used by these two successful EFL learners and found that they had applied different learning strategies respectively.

In 2003，Phakiti have conducted two studies at one of the major universities in the north of Thailand to study the relationships of EFL test performance and strategy use，gender and strategy use in L2 reading. Questionnaires were used to generate participants strategy used in the given task. The researcher believed that the variability in language test performance is related to the test-takers strategy use and strategy uses differ between male and female learners.

Classroom research on LLS instruction has been carried out by many researchers. An experimental study of language learning strategies instruction was carried out in 1990. In the study，75 high school ESL students were randomly assigned to an experimental group and a control group. The experimental group were instructed various language learning strategies in two weeks，while the controlled group were not. The conclusion of this research has supported some of the major tenets proposed in current language learning strategy instructional models （Chamot，2005）.

Language learning strategies studies have immerged into various EFL learning and teaching studies. Strategies in listening comprehension，oral communication，reading comprehension，vocabulary acquisition have been studies by various studies. Chamot （2005） has looked into the recent studies in these areas respectively. It is concluded that teachablility of learning strategy is gradually raised in these recent studies，and raising awareness of learning strategies is suggested.

4. Implications and limitations of current LLS studies

Studies into language learners learning behaviors and mental process help researchers know more about language learning process and therefore relate it to EFL and ESL. The assumption that LLS are teachable has provided an insight into EFL and ESL teaching. Especially for the input-poor EFL learning environment，implication of research results may facilitate EFL learning and teaching.

LLS studies help researchers know more about language learners. Continuous studies on language learning strategies will find out the reasons for differences between successful and unsuccessful language learners and finally work out a way to help less successful ones become successful. Studies on LLS instructions will find out effects of LLS instruction in classroom and how to make it more effective.

However，there are still limitations in the related research. Current research has found that less successful language learners also use LLS. The difference between the successful language learners and less successful learners is that the less successful ones do not seem to be aware of potential role of learning strategies in improving their language performance （Chamot，2005）. Among the studies of LLS，most of them are on the successful learners to find out why they are successful but less are on those less successful ones to find out why they are not successful.

References：

[1]Chamot，A.U.（2005）.Language learning strategy instruction：Current issues and research.Annual Review of Applied Linguistics.25，112-130.

[2]Gu，P.Y.（2003）.Fine brush and freehand：The vocabulary-learning art of two successful Chinese EFL learners.TESOL Quarterly.37（1），73-104.

[3]Oxford，R.L.（2001）.Language learning strategies.In R.Carter & D.Noonan （Eds.），The Cambridge guide to teaching English to speakers of other languages.（pp.166-172）.Cambridge：Cambridge University Press.

[4]Phakiti，A.（2003）.A close look at gender and strategy use in L2 reading.Language Learning.53 （4），649-702.

作者簡介：徐錢立（1982—），女，漢族，山東臨沂人，碩士研究生，研究方向：TESOL.