邢菊如

Abstract:Numerous research studies reveal that learning strategies have played an important role in language learning processes. This paper explores as English teachers, can we improve students' language proficiency by giving them optimal learning strategy instruction and what approaches are most effective and efficient?

Keywords:learning strategies learning strategy instruction EFL Learners

1 Introduction

Numerous research studies reveal that learning strategies have played an important role in language learning processes. According to Stern, Chamot, and other theorists and researchers (in Chamot 2005), "the good language learner" uses flexible and appropriate learning strategies to fulfill different language tasks. The main question addressed in this paper is as English teachers, can we improve students' language proficiency by giving them optimal learning strategy instruction and what approaches are most effective and efficient? This paper firstly explains the concept of learning strategy and outlines its classification. The relationship between learning strategies and language proficiency is then explored. Finally, the kind of strategies that should be taught to learners and how to teach them are discussed.

2 Theoretical background

Definitions of learning strategies emphasize different aspects of this phenomenon. Ellis (1990) sums up different authors' views: Stern first defines learning strategy as "general tendencies or overall characteristics of the approach employed by the language learner, leaving techniques as the term to refer to particular forms of observable learning behavior" (in Ellis 1990, p531); Chamot redefines strategies as "techniques, approaches or deliberate actions that students take in order to facilitate the learning, recall of both linguistic and content area information" (in Ellis 1990, p531); Rubin regards strategies as "strategies which contribute to the development of the language system which the learner constructs and affect learning directly" (in Ellis 1990, p531); Oxford relates that "Language learning strategies are behaviors or actions which learners use to make language learning more successful, self-directed and enjoyable." (in Ellis 1990, p531) . These variable definitions show a trend of methods of learners which making language learning successful and enjoyable, which partially reflects the wide spread influence of CLT approaches in second language acquisition.

Based on the above definitions, several researchers classify learning strategies into different taxonomies. In Ellis's(1990) view, the most comprehensive classification of learning strategies is that provided by Oxford in 1986 based on the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL).It contains two groups(primary strategies and support strategies) with sixty-four individual strategies. The inventory has undergone numerous revisions from then on. O'Malley and Chamot distinguish learning strategies based on an information-oriented model and classify them into three major types: cognitive strategies (repetition, note-taking, elaboration) which have a direct influence to particular learning tasks; metacognitive strategies (planning, monitoring and evaluating ) which manage, facilitate and reflect language learning tasks; social or affective strategies(clarification, cooperation) which learners use to "interact" with other people (in Ellis 1990, p538). Similar to O'Malley and Chamot's view, Oxford's (1990) framework of learning strategies refers to direct and indirect strategies. The former is made up of three components and ten subcomponents : memory strategies, cognitive strategies and compensation strategies; while the latter consists of metacognitive strategies, social strategies and affective strategies.

The above definitions and taxonomies of learning strategies all reflect the researchers' emphasis on language learners and language learning efficiency, which is valuable information for all ESL/EFL learners and teachers.

3 Relationship between learning strategies and second language proficiency

Oxford ( 1990 ) claims that appropriate language learning strategies result in improved proficiency and greater self-confidence. Her suggestion is approved by other researchers including Cohen, O'Malley and Chamot, and Oxford and Burry-Stock (in Oxford and Leaver 1996 ). Furthermore, many investigators (as listed in Oxford and Leaver 1996, p246 ) provide empirical evidence that the use of a particular strategy causes more effective learning than not using that strategy.

Researchers that show this relationship are varied. In the 1970s, Rubin and Stern suggested a model of "the good language learner" (in Chamot 2005, p115) and began to explore what particular strategies assist these successful second language learners. Other researchers including Naiman, Fronhlich, Stern & Todesco, O'Malley & Chamot and Takeuchi (in Chamot 2005) have done considerable further research on learners' characteristics and strategic techniques connected with effective second and foreign language learning in different contexts. The above studies reveal that good language learners "monitor their language comprehension and production, practice communicating in the language, make use of prior linguistic and general knowledge, use various memorization techniques, and ask questions for clarification" (in Chamot 2005, p115). Thus, the evidence appears convincing that learning strategies do play a role in successful second and foreign language learning.

More detailed research indicates that among the various types of learning strategies, metacognitive strategies are very important . O'Malley and Chamot relate that students without metacognitive strategies are learners without "direction and ability to review their progress, accomplishments, and future directions"(1990, p99). Oxford defines metacognitive strategies as "actions which go beyond purely cognitive devices and which provide a way for learners to coordinate their own learning process" (1990, p136). Chamot and Chamot et al. (in Chamot 2005) propose four processes within metacognitive strategies: planning, monitoring, problem-solving, and evaluating. Both Rubin's model and Anderson's model (in Chamot 2005) are made up of five strategies. The former simply has an extra strategy named implementing, while the latter focuses on interacting with learners' interlanguage. Planning, selecting and using learning strategies, monitoring strategy use, orchestrating various strategies, and evaluating the strategies used are the sum of Anderson's model. Similarly, the National Capital Language Resource Center and task-based learning emphasize the importance of learners' problem-solving strategies(in Chamot 2005).

Further evidence that metacognitive strategies are very important in successful second and foreign language learning comes from a case study by Vendergrift (in Chamot 2005), who once conducted a study on listening comprehension strategies among Canadian seventh-grade students of French. A comparison was made between more skilled students and less skilled ones. The more skilled students were found to use more metacognitive strategies(monitoring strategy such as questioning for clarification) than their less skilled peers.

All of the above empirical research supports from different aspects the close relationship between learning strategy applications and high language proficiency. The significance of metacognitive strategies to language learning is also highlighted and fully proved.

4 Teaching learning strategies

Can less skilled language learners be taught to use language strategies which have been contributed to their more successful and skilled peers? Oxford (1990) claims that learners who receive strategy training generally learn better than those who do not receive such training. Many research support this view. In a recent study of oral communication strategies by Nakatani ( 2005) at a women's college in Japan, the experimental students were taught strategies that could help them learn more of the language. By comparing pre- and post test oral communication test results of both the experimental group and the controlled group, Nakatani found that students in the experimental group showed a greater improvement on oral proficiency tests than the students in the controlled group. Similar findings appeared in strategy instruction studies in listening communication, vocabulary study, reading communication and writing by many theorists and researchers. (e.g Ross and Rost, Thompson and Rubin, Fan, Chamot and Keatley, Macaro, Cohen and Brooks, in Chamot 2005).

Ellis(1990) suggests, learning strategies differ according to varied learning tasks. Consequently, it might be possible to change learners' strategy awareness and strategy applications through instructional training. His opinion is consistent with the findings from Nakatani's study above.

Because learning strategies are so important, it is therefore vital to teach learning strategies to EFL learners. Oxford (1990) asserts that awareness or consciousness - raising training is very important because learners need to become familiar with the general idea of language learning strategies and how strategies can help them to fulfill various language tasks. Then learners can gain insight into their own approaches to learning. Stern, Chamot, and other theorists (in Chamot 2005) claim "the good language learner" uses flexible and appropriate learning strategies to fulfill different language tasks. Therefore, language learners need to be trained how to utilize appropriate strategies specific to certain listening, speaking, reading and writing tasks, such as memory strategies in vocabulary study; note-taking, repetition, summarizing, inferring (forms of cognitive strategy), planning and self-reliance, self-evaluating (forms of metacognitive strategy), collaborating, and clarification strategies (forms of social/affective strategy) (in Oxford 1990).

Numerous researchers have explored the optimal approaches to teach second language learning strategies. Many researchers( e.g, Anderson, Chamot, O'Malley& Chamot, Oxford & Leaver, in Chamot 2005) maintain that explicit learning strategy instruction fosters metacognition, students' ability to understand their own thinking and learning processes. They advocate that teaching strategies explicitly is far more effective than simply asking students to use one or more strategies. A recent study of reading comprehension of college level students by Ikeda and Takeuchi also show that the effects of explicit learning strategy instruction is more prolonged (in Chamot, 2005). The students still retained their use of learning strategies five months after they were given 8-week explicit learning strategy instruction.

In addition to explicit learning strategy instruction, Chamot states that learning strategies are "goal-driven" and "sensitive to the learning context " (2005, p112-113). This view echoed back to some previous opinions in this field. Many researchers including Campione , Armbruster , Chamot and O'Malley (in O'Malley and Chamot 1990) claims that integrated strategy instruction enables learners to practice strategies using on authentic language tasks. Consequently, transferring learning strategies to other similar tasks will be easy for learners. Therefore, learning strategies should be integrated with tasks instead of being taught separately. Chamot (2005 ) also draws the conclusion by comparing other researchers' studies that learning strategy training should be integrated and taught simultaneously with the language course and it should not be separated from regular language classroom teaching.

Based on the belief that language learners can be taught and trained to use learning strategies to facilitate their language proficiency, importance of teaching learning strategies, what to teach as well as how to teach appropriately and effectively are explored in this part.

5 Conclusion

This paper has looked at the definitions and taxonomies of learning strategies. Furthermore, it also gets insight into the relationship between learning strategies and language proficiency and the studies and claims appropriate and flexible use of learning strategies can result in high EFL language proficiency. Finally, optimal approaches to learning strategy instruction are explored. Although the research in this paper represents only a small proportion of the overall research, it is not hard for us to draw the conclusion that learning strategy instruction is crucial to EFL learners and will facilitate their language learning in certain contexts. If we are to obtain the most beneficial outcomes for our students, we, as responsible foreign language teachers, need to observe more carefully our students' strategy use both in and out of class and think about the underlying implications. Thus, we can give effective and individual rather than universal strategy instruction to language learners.

References:

[1]ChaChamot, A. U. Language Learning Strategy Instruction: Current Issues and Research. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 2005,(25): 112-130.

[2]EllisEllis, R.Learning Strategy in the Study of Second Language Study. Oxford: Oxford University Press,1994.529-564

[3]O'O'Malley, J. M. & Chamot, A.U.Learning Strategies in Second Language Acquisition.Oxford: Oxford University Press,1990.

[4]OxfOxford, R.Language Learning Strategy: What English Teacher Should Know. Newburry House: Harper and Row Boston,1990.