1 Introduction

English is learned as a foreign language (EFL) in China. Writing of the four language learning skills is a kind of creative thinking activities as well as a dynamic and interactive process. The teaching of Three-paragraph Argumentative Writing, which is a weak part for English majors in TEM-4 and TEM-8, is crucial in college English instruction. For decades, the teaching of writing at the tertiary level has been product-centered. The emphasis is on“style, organization, and correctness” (Hairston,1982). However, in class both teachers and students ignore the importance of planning before writing. The author with the experience of 7 years of teaching English writing courses finds the main causes why many students fail to write Three-paragraph Argumentative Writings well as follows: lacking sufficient input of English argumentative reading materials, transferring Chinese thinking modes to express their ideas in English, and lacking frequent and sufficient writing, including the long-standing formed habit without conscious planning before writing in English. These factors apparently cause their low level of free writing in argumentative writings. This paper reviews the application of Scaffolding Theory in writings, and proposes a series of training strategies of blank-filling writing, guided writing, controlled writing, and planning before writing.

2 Problems of Three-paragraph Writings

There are some problems in writings instruction which are considerable for both writing teachers and their students. In class writing teachers convey more theories or rules on how to write argumentative writings, but their students frequently make errors as follows: 1) their writings are not argumentative; 2) their expressions are Chinese-like, out of logic, and with more mistakes in grammar; 3) the forms of their writings are not in agreement with their meanings; and 4) the viewpoints or ideas of students cannot be found in their writings. The biggest problem with EFL writing for English majors is that they don't want to write and write too little. When students are asked to write argumentative compositions in class, they always complain about the tasks of writings with 200 words or so in limited time within 35minutes. In fact, most students cannot complete the limited-time tasks. In the authors eyes, students very much like to shift the pattern of Chinese narrative writings to English argumentative writings. Take topic assigned by writing teachers Advertisements on TV as an example, most students begin their first sentence with With the development of Chinas economic, we can now see there are many advertisements on TV. This sentence cannot be regarded as the topic sentence, for it does not contain a theme—rheme structure, which is the “basic form of the organization of the clause as message” (Halliday, 1985, p.53). Also for him the “basic unit of language in use is not a word or a sentence, but a text” (Halliday, 1970, p.160). The key factor, based on the analyses above, is that students do not form the habit of planning — planning before their writing.

3 Scaffolding Theory

Scaffolding has been used successfully as an instructional technique for many years. The term “scaffolding” was first used by Jerome Bruner (1986) in his book Actual Minds, Possible Worlds to describe the assistance that a teacher gives a student to help him/her safely take risks and reach higher than would be possible by the students efforts alone. Bruner used the term to talk about the way caregivers assist young children in learning by: 1) the joint construction of language; 2)gradually withdrawing their support as children gain independent mastery of the language. Frances Christie (2005) points out that the term scaffold is “a metaphor taken from the building industry. It refers to the way scaffolds sustain and support people who are constructing a building. The scaffolds are withdrawn once the building has taken shape and is able to support itself independently” (p.42-43).

Hammond and Gibbons (2001) note that “A major feature of the term ‘scaffolding is its ability to capture the role of the ‘expert, or more knowledgeable, in assisting students learning, and the role of that knowledgeable other in extending studentscurrent levels of understanding or current capabilities.” A scaffolding experience allows a student to move away from assistance, to become an independent learner able to transfer the acquired understanding to new contexts. Given this premise, a teacher must recognize when to withdraw support and to move intentionally away, allowing the student to apply and transfer knowledge in new ways. Scaffolding is also seen in instructional design as the intentional planning of curricula to organize tasks and activities in such a way as to build understanding. Thus, scaffolding occurs at both the micro (the individual teacher/student interaction) and the macro (the program or organization) level, and both elements are presumably active in learning environments where good pedagogy takes place.

Scaffolding is therefore important in writing instruction. Strong instructional programs recognize the need to design curricula that purposefully builds knowledge, introducing skills and concepts in logical and meaningful increments that provide students a firm, factual foundation in content. While, teachers in the program must be adept at scaffolding at the micro level by providing instruction and assistance that challenges and motivates individual students to construct and transfer new knowledge and understanding.

4 Strategies of training

4.1 Blank-filling writing

The theory of blank-filling (gap-filling) writing dates to the schema theory first proposed the concept of schema or schemata (plural) by Bartlett (1932, 1958). Later Rumelhart (1980) further developed the schema concept. Schema can be categorized as: formal schema and content one. The writing schema serves as a good introduction to the idea, which needs both of the two schema. For foreign language learners, the content schema is prior to the formal schema. With the development of students foreign language competence and accumulation of knowledge, the content schema can gradually change, enrich, and renew; the formal schema such as regularities, styles, based on the great many of drills, can be autonomous from the three stages of cognition, association, and autonomy. Writers should pay more attention to the unity, coherence, conciseness, and the regularities of English expression.

Blank-filling writing is effective and helpful for students to construct the frame of argumentative writing. As English majors, they have accumulated many fair argumentative writings, which help them to imitate according to the samples. The author will give an example as follows:

My Understanding of Friendship

Friendship, in a broad sense, exists between all human beings. If you are a peasant, _____________.In return, ________. Your friends make your work and life possible and easier.

Friendship, of course, between familiar people is also important. When we are in trouble, ________; when we are upset, ____________. Friendship makes life more meaningful and beautiful.

Friendship, in my opinion, should be consistent and lasting. ____________. Real friendship should stand the test of time and hardship.

4.2 Guided writing

Guided writing involves the teacher working with small groups of students. In guided writing students apply the understandings they have gained from model and shared writing sessions, with varying degrees of support from the teacher. The students explore aspects of the writing process, which have been demonstrated. The teacher predetermines the teaching focus from observations and analysis of students' writing. The session is focused on specific aspects of writing that students need to develop.

Susan Hill (1999) explains the functions about guided writing in her book Guiding Literacy Learners: Guided writing involves individuals or small groups of students writing a range of text types. The teacher may provide short mini-lessons to demonstrate a particular aspect of text type, grammar, punctuation or spelling. Guided writing is linked to reading and various text types are used as models. Students may use writing frames or templates as scaffold for writing. Therefore, Guided writing is useful for a range of teaching purposes, which will vary, depending on the developmental stage and the needs of the students. Guided Writing uses effective guided instruction methods to build the strong scaffolding needed for students to learn, master, and enjoy the craft of writing. The following example based on the outline can be shown the approach to guided wiring.

On Honesty

Honesty means speaking the truth and being fair and upright in act. 1) Considered as a virtue, 2) One who lies and cheats… 3) Dishonesty is generally…

As…says,“Honesty is the best policy.” 1) If… (importance of honesty)2) People …(attitudes toward honest and dishonest people)3) If… (importance to success)4) Therefore…(conclusion).

Many people, however, try various dishonest means in order to get what they want. 1) For… (example: by bribery or lies) 2) Some… (example: plagiarism in academic works)3) Others … (example: cheating in exams)4) … (your attitude toward this).

4.3 Controlled writing

Controlled writing means that the students writing would be limited in a special field. The value of teaching controlled writing as beginning in the acquisition of writing skills is undisputed and while the methods are well-defined and materials plentiful. Basic to composition skill is control of sentence structure and accuracy in mechanics. The following outline can show the teacher how to train his students ability to write the Three-paragraph Argumentative Writing based on the approach to controlled writing

A Major Advantage/Disadvantage of Advertising on Television

Thesis:TV is the most effective medium for advertising.

Paragraph 1: TV is the most popular medium that reaches almost every family.

a. Computers:expensive, not needed by every family.

b. Newspapers and magazines: not subscribed by every family.

Paragraph 2: TV commercials are best remembered with sound, pictures and actions.

a. Newspapers and magazines: words but no sound and actions.

b. Radios: sound but no pictures and actions.

Paragraph 3: TV commercials are rarely missed.

a. Arranged between hot shows.

b. Appearing at best time of day.

c. Seen at random.

Conclusion:To achieve the best effect,business organizations should promote their products and services on TV.

4.4 Planning before writing

Free composition is that euphoric stage where the student has mastered sufficient language skills and organization to be able to handle the writing of a chosen topic when given only a specific amount of time and definite length. It helps the student discover ideas and gather materials. It also is an exercise in which he writes quickly off the top of his head with no judgment intended. It is useful, on occasion, for getting a writing project started, but it is also the most common warm up exercise used by professional writers. For English majors, they may try focused free-writing namely, free-writing with a focus, the topic. It requires them to think about the topic as they get ready. After that, all they need to do is follow the free writing procedure as has been outlined. The advantages of free forming conception writing can be listed as: 1) it increases fluency if writers do it regularly;2) it strengthens the right brain over time. The left brain is strong and pushy; 3) it warms up the brain for higher level activity; 4) it often reveals good ideas which have not previously burst through into consciousness for either writing or maybe living.

Here is the writing of the examination in the year 2007 in TEM-4: Nowadays the Internet has become part of peoples life, and millions of young people have made friends online. Write a composition of about 200 words on the following topic: Is It Wise to Make Friends Online?

5 Conclusion

English is learned as a foreign language (EFL) in China. The biggest problem with EFL writing for English majors is that students dont want to write and write too little. Writing is isolated from other language skills listening, speaking, and reading; there is very little social interaction. More Chinese students have got the habit of thinking in Chinese their native language, which hinders their sufficient comprehensive input. Based on the analyses of the Scaffolding Theory, English majors can foster the awareness of planning before their writings through a series of training strategies like blank-filling writing, guided writing, controlled writing, and planning before writing, which is called as high level of free writing. This series of training show students processes of development in writings from mechanical imitation to autonomous acquisition, from form to content, from low level free writing without planning before writing to high level free writing.

References:

[1]Bartlett,F.C. Remembering: An experimental and social study[M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1932.

[2]Bartlett, F.C. Thinking[M]. New York: Basic Books, 1958.

[3]Bruner, J. Actual Minds, Possible Worlds[M]. Harvard: Harvard UP, 1986.

[4]Christie,F. Language Education in the Primary Years[M]. University of NSW Press: Sydney, 2005.

[5]Hairston, M. The winds of change: Thomas Kuhn and the revolution in teaching of writing. College Composition and Communication, 33(1), 1982.

[6]Halliday, M.A.K.“Language Structure and Language Function”[A].InJ.Lyons (ed).New Horizons in Linguistics[C].Harmondsworth:Penguin, 1970.

[7]Halliday, M.A.K. An Introduction to Functional Grammar(2nd ed.)[M]. London: Edward and Arnold, 1985/1996.

[8]Hammond, J & Gibbons, P. What is Scaffolding? In Scaffolding: Teaching and Learning in Literacy Education, ed. J. Hammond. Primary English Teaching Association, Sydney, 2001.

[9]Hill, S. Guiding literacy learners; focus on literacy. Eleanor Curtain. Armadale, Victoria, 1999.

[10]Rumelhart, D. E. Schemata: the building blocks of cognition. In R.J. Spiro, B.C. Bruce, & W.F. Brewer (eds.) Theoretical issues in reading comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawreence Erlbaum Associates, 1980.

作者簡介:羅明禮(1966-)男,樂山師范學(xué)院外國語學(xué)院副教授,碩士。研究方向:英語教育理論與實踐,英語寫作。