The content of this set of books covers the representative paintings of each historical period from ancient China to the Ming and Qing dynasties， involving the history of painting， interpretation of works， the beliefs of Chinese people， philosophy， history and the desire for beauty.

Wei， Jin， and Northern and Southern Dynasties: The First Documented Painters

The History of Chinese Painting for Everyone

Yong Mianmian

Intellectual Property Publishing House

April 2021

232.00 (CNY)

Yong Mianmian

Yong Mianmian graduated from the Department of Fine Arts Education at Lu Xun Academy of Fine Arts， majoring in Chinese painting. She later took charge of the Printmaking Department of the Central Academy of Fine Arts. She has been engaged in archaeological research for more than ten years.

The paintings of the Wei and Jin periods retained the legacy of the Han Dynasty’s emphasis on “promoting moral principles and edifying virtues，” while also emerging as independent works of art.

During the Wei and Jin periods， “pure” philosophy and “pure” art were born， progressing in parallel and influencing each other. As the Confucianism of the Han Dynasty collapsed， it gave rise to the ideas and value pursuits of the aristocratic clans， along with the trend of venerating Laozi and Zhuangzi while exploring the true essence of the universe， known as “Wei-Jin metaphysics.” This movement persisted until after the Southern Dynasties， when Buddhism began to flourish. When philosophical discourse could no longer fully express ideas， people turned to art. The new Wei-Jin thought， reflected in literature and art， signaled a human awakening， with a focus on contemplating and grasping the meaning of life， personal talent， demeanor， and character. Figures like Ruan Ji and Tao Yuanming， who played a stringless qin， represented the Wei-Jin style that valued nature， wisdom， and genuine emotions.

Gu Kaizhi was a great painter of the Eastern Jin Dynasty， as well as a theorist of painting. Proficient in poetry， prose， calligraphy， and painting， he produced many Daoist and Buddhist paintings， narrative paintings， and portraits. The surviving works Admonitions of the Court Instructress to Palace Ladies， The Ode to the Nymph of the Luo River， and Wise and Benevolent Women are considered copies of Gu Kaizhi’s originals.

Gu Kaizhi believed that the key to conveying a figure’s spirit lay in the eyes， emphasizing the depiction of psychological traits and spiritual character. He proposed important theories such as “depicting the spirit through form” and “perceiving the essence through insight.” This approach was a reflection of the Wei-Jin style. Gu Kaizhi once used Ji Kang’s poetry to comment on painting: “Wielding the five-stringed lute is easy， but following the returning wild geese with your eyes is difficult.” “Wielding the five-stringed lute” refers to the depiction of form， while “following the returning wild geese” speaks to the expression of inner meaning. Chinese painting took Gu Kaizhi’s theory of “transmitting spirit” as the starting point for its great development， forming a system of ink painting completely different from the realistic style of Western classical oil painting.

The term “Court Instructress” referred to a female official， and “admonitions” were moral exhortations. The Admonitions of the Court Instructress to Palace Ladies was based on an article by Zhang Hua， the Marquis of Guangwu from the Western Jin Dynasty， and consists of twelve sections， of which nine remain today. The work teaches women how to cultivate themselves. The painting is in the form of a handscroll， which is gradually unrolled from right to left， allowing for leisurely viewing and appreciation. In 1900， during the invasion of Beijing by the Eight-Nation Alliance， the painting was looted by British forces.

The painting depicts the concubine Lady Feng of Emperor Yuan of Han blocking a bear to protect the emperor in a dangerous situation. As Lady Feng confronts the black bear and is about to be injured， two guards with spears rescue her. The emperor and other terrified concubines watch the unfolding events from behind.

Another story illustrated in the painting is that of Lady Ban refusing Emperor Cheng of Han’s sedan. Emperor Cheng had ordered a larger sedan chair to be made so that he could always travel with Lady Ban. However， she declined the emperor’s offer， saying， “Looking at the pictures left by the ancients， wise rulers were always accompanied by virtuous ministers， while the fallen kings of the Xia， Shang， and Zhou dynasties were surrounded by concubines. If I were to ride in the same sedan with the ruler， wouldn’t that make me similar to them?” Emperor Cheng agreed with her reasoning and abandoned the idea of traveling together.

The painting depicts the scene where Lady Ban declines the emperor’s sedan. Emperor Cheng turns his head to call for Lady Ban to join him， but she remains respectful and modest， following behind the sedan. The painting also shows wild animals like tigers in the mountains， birds flying toward the mountains， the red sun on the right， and the full moon on the left. A hunter aims his crossbow at a tiger， the king of the mountain. This transitional scene symbolizes the inevitable decline that follows prosperity， the idea that when the moon is full， it begins to wane， and that the affairs of the world are ever-changing.

Gu Kaizhi developed the “Archaic Gossamer Line” technique that had been evolving since the Warring States Period. This technique involves controlling the strength of the brushstrokes， producing lines that are tight， continuous， and naturally flowing， like silkworms spinning silk in spring.

The Ode to the Nymph of the Luo River is an essay by Cao Zhi， Prince Si of Chen， which describes his encounter， love， separation， and sorrowful farewell with a divine woman by the Luo River. Gu Kaizhi captured the poetic essence of this tale in his painting. The willow branches flutter in the wind， conveying a sense of melancholy and longing， as if caught between reality and a dream. As the scroll unfolds， we see Cao Zhi， overwhelmed with emotion and supported by his attendants， while in the distance， the Nymph of the Luo River gracefully skims over the water， catching his eye in a fleeting glance.

How did Gu Kaizhi depict the unparalleled beauty of the Luo River Goddess as described by Cao Zhi? He employed a surrealistic technique. The flowing lines of the goddess’s robes merge with the background landscape， creating an intricate， dreamlike world of images. True beauty lies in the spirit， in the space left for the viewer’s imagination.

Humans and gods belong to different realms. Amid the sound of drums， Cao Zhi watches as the goddess departs in a chariot drawn by six dragons. She is escorted by mythical creatures and divine beasts before disappearing into the clouds and waters.

In the painting， the emotions of the characters are not primarily expressed through facial expressions but through the subtle relationships between them. The Luo River Goddess， filled with tender affection， exudes a longing that is palpable yet unattainable， embodying Gu Kaizhi’s artistic principle of “perceiving the essence through insight.”

After parting from the goddess， Cao Zhi sits alone on the riverbank， steeped in melancholy. The landscape， though somewhat primitive， serves as a theatrical backdrop that enhances the atmosphere of romantic dreaminess， resonating with the emotions of the characters.

Although The Ode to the Nymph of the Luo River follows the storyline of a narrative with landscape as a backdrop， the painting became a seminal work representing the early development of Chinese landscape painting. The Wei， Jin， and Northern and Southern dynasties marked the formal emergence of Chinese landscape painting. The rise of landscape painting was inspired by Daoist thought. A group of painters and poets began to return to and delve into nature， seeking to achieve the Daoist ideal of “Heaven and I coexist， and all things are one with me，” as proposed by Zhuangzi， aiming for a state of “unity of Heaven and man.” Zong Bing， a painter from the Southern Dynasty Song， authored Preface to the Painting of Landscapes， which is the earliest Chinese treatise on landscape painting. It discusses the principles of perspective in terms of distance， emphasizing that landscape painting is the process through which a painter expresses the inner realm through natural imagery. This philosophy and aesthetic outlook were integrated into landscape painting， recognizing that artistic creation has a “Dao” that transcends the utilitarian functions of painting that had been emphasized under the influence of Confucianism since the Han Dynasty， such as promoting moral principles and edifying virtues. Zong Bing’s theories reflected the thoughts and sentiments of scholars. During the Wei， Jin， and Northern and Southern dynasties， certain creative ideas and artistic practices of literati painting began to emerge. In his Treatise on Painting， Gu Kaizhi remarked， “Among all subjects of painting， humans are the most difficult， followed by landscapes， and then animals like dogs and horses.” This statement indicates that by the Eastern Jin Dynasty， the classification of painting subjects by genre was already taking shape.

The story in the painting is based on Liu Xiang’s Biographies of Exemplary Women. During the reign of Emperor Cheng of Han， the emperor was particularly fond of the sisters Zhao Feiyan and Zhao Hede， which led to turmoil in the court and the overreach of the imperial relatives. Liu Xiang compiled Biographies of Exemplary Women using materials from ancient poetry and historical texts that recorded the deeds of virtuous concubines and chaste women， intending it as a moral admonition to the emperor， his consorts， and the imperial relatives.

Gu Kaizhi selected a part of Biographies of Exemplary Women titled “The Scroll of Benevolence and Wisdom” to illustrate. Each section is divided by verses， creating a form that is both independent and interconnected.

The shading and color gradation in the painting is noticeably more pronounced compared to the silk paintings of the Chu and Han periods， and the sense of volume is significantly enhanced， showcasing a blend of Central Plains and Western painting styles that emphasize shading.

The scene depicted is one where Duke Ling of Wei and his wife are sitting at night when they hear the sound of a carriage stopping at the palace gate. After a while， they hear the carriage again. Duke Ling asks his wife， “Can you guess who just passed by in the carriage outside?” The wife replies， “It must be Qu Boyu.” She explains that Qu Boyu is both benevolent and wise， serving the ruler with respect and caution. Such a person “would never disregard propriety in the dark.” The man who dismounted from the carriage and walked past the ruler’s gate in the night must be Qu Boyu. Duke Ling sends someone to check， and sure enough， it is him. Duke Ling returns， intending to play a joke by saying it was not Qu Boyu. His wife pours him wine to congratulate him. Duke Ling asks why she is congratulating him. She responds， “At first， I thought there was only one Qu Boyu in the State of Wei， but now it seems there is another person of the same virtue， meaning our ruler has two virtuous ministers. This is a blessing for the state.”

In the painting， the wide hems of the characters’ skirts provide stability to their forms. The scene depicted is one where Duke Wei of Yi is preparing to marry off Lady Xu Mu to the State of Xu.

Lady Xu Mu was the daughter of Count Zhao of Wei， a concubine’s son of Duke Xuan of Wei， and Xuan Jiang. During the Spring and Autumn Period， the State of Wei was a medium-sized feudal state among the many states. Lady Xu Mu was known for her singing， poetry， and beauty. Envoys from the States of Xu and Qi both came to seek her hand in marriage. Moved by the rich gifts from Xu， Duke Yi of Wei decided to marry her to the ruler of Xu. The Lady， however， considered the safety of Wei and argued that the State of Xu was weak and far from Wei， so if Wei were attacked， Xu would not have the strength to come to its aid. On the other hand， the State of Qi was strong and a close neighbor to Wei， so it would be better for her to marry into Qi. Despite her reasoning， Duke Yi of Wei insisted on marrying her to Duke Mu， the ruler of Xu， hence her title， Lady Xu Mu. In 660 BCE， the northern Di tribe invaded Wei， and Duke Yi of Wei was killed. Upon hearing the news of Wei’s downfall， Lady Xu Mu was deeply grieved and sought the assistance of Duke Mu of Xu to reclaim the lost territory. However， Xu’s ruler feared reprisals and refused to send troops. Lady Xu Mu then rode swiftly to Caoyi by herself， despite objections and criticism from Xu’s ministers， and wrote the famous poem Zai Chi to express her determination to return to her homeland. After returning to Wei， she first helped refugees and then discussed strategies for restoring the state with Wei’s ministers. She also suggested seeking aid from the State of Qi. Moved by her patriotism， Duke Huan of Qi sent Prince Wu Kui to lead troops to assist Wei， helping to drive out the Di invaders and reclaim the lost land. Two years later， the State of Wei rebuilt its capital at Chuqiu and regained its status among the feudal states， continuing for another four hundred years. The poem Zai Chi is recorded in the Book of Songs. Lady Xu Mu is recognized as the first female poet both in Chinese and world literary history. Other poems attributed to her include “Spring Water” and “Bamboo Pole” from the Book of Songs. Today， the states of Wei， Xu， and Qi have long vanished into history， and Duke Mu of Xu has long been forgotten， but the woman of the Ji clan by the Qishui River remains celebrated as the first renowned female poet， remembered for generations.

The wife of Xi Fuji， a minister of the State of Cao during the Spring and Autumn Period， is another noteworthy figure. When Prince Chong’er of Jin (later Duke Wen of Jin) passed through the State of Cao during his exile， she advised her husband to treat him with respect， recognizing the potential in him and his followers. She foresaw that Chong’er would one day rule Jin and that he would seek to punish any feudal lords who had treated him poorly， including Cao. Thus， she urged Xi Fuji to remain vigilant. When Duke Wen of Jin later attacked Cao， he ordered his troops not to harm Xi Fuji or his family in gratitude for their previous kindness. In the painting， the flowing lines of the wife’s robes create an elegant and dignified posture.