This book focuses on major archaeological sites such as the Yinxu Ruins， Sanxingdui Ruins， the Tomb of King Anxi of Wei， the Shuihudi Qin Tomb， the Mawangdui Han Tomb， and the Tomb of Marquis Haihun. It narrates the reasons for their excavation， the excavation process， the discoveries made， and the tracing of the origins of the unearthed artifacts. Covering 88 emperors and nobles， the book includes nearly 300 photographs， immersing readers in an archaeological perspective to understand Chinese history.

The Young Girl’s Skull in a Bronze Vessel

The History of China in Relics

Qu Changtao

New World Press

April 2024

99.00 (CNY)

Qu Changtao

Qu Changtao is a scholar of history and geography， writer， former reporter for Reader’s New Newspaper， columnist in literature and history for Metropolitan News， exclusive signed anchor for a bestselling audiobook on Himalaya， executive director of the China Strategic Planning Association， and a member of the China Adventure Association.

In 1984， a bronze yan was unearthed at the Yinxu site in Henan Province， discovered by a young archaeologist during an excavation. The yan was a cooking vessel from the Shang Dynasty， consisting of two parts: The upper part called zeng， used to hold food， and the lower part called li (lì)， used to hold water. When the bottom was heated with charcoal， the water would turn into steam and cook the food above. Its principle is similar to modern steamers. However， this yan from Anyang’s Yinxu site was extremely unusual — it contained not steamed buns， but a human head.

It was the first time that archaeologists encountered a human head inside a cooking vessel. Some speculated that it was a coincidence， as burial objects and sacrificial victims were often buried together， making it possible for a sacrificial victim’s head to end up near the bronze yan. Over time， due to tectonic movements， underground water flow， or disturbance by those who buried it， the head might have accidentally rolled into the vessel.

The bronze yan had been buried underground for years， and the upper part had been deformed by the surrounding soil， tightly trapping the head inside， making it impossible to remove. At the time， experts couldn’t conduct further tests or research， and since this was an isolated case， the “coincidence theory” prevailed. However， 15 years later， the “human head yan” resurfaced. In 1999， another bronze yan containing a human head was unearthed at Yinxu， indicating that the steamer was not an isolated incident and likely had a deeper significance. This prompted experts to conduct a comprehensive investigation. The second bronze yan was well-preserved， with no damage or deformation， allowing researchers to easily remove the skull and conduct tests. The goals of these tests were threefold: First， to determine whether the human head inside the bronze yan accidentally rolled in， was deliberately placed there， or was used for steaming; second， to identify the deceased’s identity and why they were treated so cruelly; and third， to understand the purpose if the head was indeed steamed.

Researchers took a small bone fragment from the skull and analyzed it in the laboratory. The results showed that， compared to other skeletal remains found at Yinxu， the calcium content in the second bronze yan’s skull was very low. This indicated that the skull did not accidentally roll into the bronze yan during or after burial， but was deliberately placed on boiling water and steamed， causing a significant loss of calcium in the skull. But whose skull was it?

The skull belonged to a female. Based on the wear and development of her teeth， she was only 15 years old at the time of death， still a young girl. But this information wasn’t enough; the experts hoped to uncover more archaeological clues from the skull. So， they extracted a tooth for strontium isotope analysis to determine where the girl was from.

Strontium is a trace element that enters the human body through diet， replacing calcium in the bones and eventually depositing in the skeletal system. Due to differences in climate， water sources， soil， and diet， the four strontium isotope ratios in residents from different regions vary significantly. If someone lives in a place for a long time， the strontium isotope ratio in their bones will align with that of the local population. However， there’s an exception: teeth. The outer layer of a tooth is called enamel， which is hard and stable. By the time a person is about 12 years old， their enamel is fully developed， and the strontium isotope ratio within it becomes fixed for life. No matter where they move or how long they live there， this ratio remains “l(fā)ocked.” Based on this principle， experts conducted a strontium isotope analysis of the girl’s tooth， revealing that she was not a native of Anyang， Henan. She was likely captured by the Shang military.

Further oxygen isotope analysis revealed that the girl’s tooth had a much higher oxygen-18 content compared to other remains found at Yinxu. In the monsoon climate of mainland China， oxygen-18 content increases the closer one is to the sea and decreases further inland. So， relative to Yinxu， the girl’s homeland should have been closer to the sea， likely to the east， northeast， or southeast of Anyang， Henan.

Historians found that the layer where the bronze yan was unearthed dates to the fourth phase of Yinxu， near the end of the Shang Dynasty. According to oracle bone inscriptions held in the Palace Museum and Peking University Library， it was during this period that the Shang army conducted a large-scale military operation in “Lu，” southeast of Anyang， corresponding to today’s Lu’an in Anhui Province. The battle lasted about a year， with the Shang forces emerging victorious and returning with a large number of spoils， including prisoners of war. Based on these clues， experts inferred that the girl in the bronze yan was one of these captives， likely from Lu’an， Anhui， which is indeed further east and closer to the sea than Anyang.

Was the girl a soldier， a family member of a soldier， or an ordinary civilian before her capture? This could be deduced from the condition of her teeth. If a person maintains a vegetarian diet for a long time， the proportion of carbohydrates consumed will be relatively high. These carbohydrates are hydrolyzed by amylase in the mouth into glucose， which is then converted by microorganisms into organic acids. This increases the acidity in the mouth， thereby raising the risk of tooth wear and cavities.

However， the girl in the bronze yan had no severe cavities， indicating that her diet was low in carbohydrates and high in protein. At the time， carbohydrates primarily came from grains and other plant-based foods， while protein mainly came from meat， which was a luxury in the Shang Dynasty. Therefore， the sacrificial girl likely came from a wealthy noble family. Over 3，000 years ago， her tribe or state was attacked and destroyed by the Shang army. She was captured， her head severed， placed in the bronze yan， steamed， and sacrificed to the Shang ancestors.

Artifacts from different dynasties bear unique characteristics of the time. Qin and Han artifacts are ancient and heavy; those from the Jin Dynasties are graceful and elegant; Tang artifacts are luxurious and romantic; Song artifacts are simple and refined; Yuan artifacts are bold and rugged; and artifacts from the Ming and Qing dynasties onward became increasingly elaborate and intricate.