麻雅潔 趙 鑫 賀相春 任麗萍

社交媒體使用對執(zhí)行功能的影響：有益還是有害？*

麻雅潔1,2趙 鑫1,2賀相春3任麗萍1,2

(1甘肅省行為與心理健康重點(diǎn)實(shí)驗(yàn)室;2西北師范大學(xué)心理學(xué)院;3西北師范大學(xué)教育技術(shù)學(xué)院, 蘭州 730070)

社交媒體使用對執(zhí)行功能的影響尚存爭議, 這與社交媒體使用強(qiáng)度起到的調(diào)節(jié)作用有關(guān)。中等強(qiáng)度的社交媒體使用會產(chǎn)生社交媒體心流體驗(yàn), 使注意集中于目標(biāo)信息, 并為個體提供了持續(xù)不斷的社會獎勵和情感支持, 對執(zhí)行功能有益, 但高、低強(qiáng)度社交媒體使用則會損害執(zhí)行功能。今后該領(lǐng)域的研究應(yīng)該探討社交媒體使用影響執(zhí)行功能的“劑量效應(yīng)”以及社交媒體使用類型對執(zhí)行功能的具體影響, 還應(yīng)關(guān)注不同認(rèn)知水平的個體, 以進(jìn)一步明確社交媒體使用與執(zhí)行功能發(fā)展的關(guān)系。

社交媒體, 執(zhí)行功能, 心流體驗(yàn)

1 引言

社交媒體(social media)是一種建立在互聯(lián)網(wǎng)技術(shù), 特別是Web 2.0基礎(chǔ)之上的用以構(gòu)建社會關(guān)系和獲取信息的應(yīng)用平臺(Andreas & Michael, 2010)。社交媒體使用則是基于社交媒體開展的各種活動的總稱, 目前研究者主要從使用頻率、使用時(shí)間、使用強(qiáng)度及使用成癮等角度來衡量社交媒體的使用程度(Mieczkowski et al., 2020; 張亞利等, 2021)。已有研究表明, 社交媒體的使用可以幫助個體形成積極的自我概念(Gentile et al., 2012)、促進(jìn)人際交流(Torous & Keshavan, 2016)、獲得社會支持(Huang & Liu, 2017), 發(fā)展社會資本(Bucci et al., 2019)。但是, 社交媒體使用也會給個體帶來一系列負(fù)面的影響, 如, 可能會導(dǎo)致抑郁癥狀(Lin et al., 2016;Twenge & Campbell, 2019)、自尊水平下降(Sherlock & Wagstaff, 2018)、睡眠障礙(van der Schuur et al., 2019)、外貌焦慮(Vannucci et al., 2017)和身材焦慮(Frost & Rickwood, 2017; Sherlock & Wagstaff, 2018)等不良結(jié)果。同時(shí), 社交媒體使用還會導(dǎo)致個體的認(rèn)知能力下降, 尤其是對個體的執(zhí)行功能(executive function, EF)有消極影響(Baumgartner et al., 2014; Parry & le Roux, 2019)。執(zhí)行功能是指以目標(biāo)為導(dǎo)向?qū)Χ喾N認(rèn)知加工進(jìn)行監(jiān)控和管理的能力(Miller & Cohen, 2001; Miyake et al., 2000), 包括一系列的高級認(rèn)知加工過程, 其中轉(zhuǎn)換(“switching ”or “shifting”)、刷新(updating)、抑制(inhibition)三個獨(dú)立的成分一直受到研究者的諸多關(guān)注。但近期有研究發(fā)現(xiàn), 使用社交媒體反而對個體的執(zhí)行功能有益, 如練習(xí)使用社交媒體的新手用戶在刷新和抑制能力上表現(xiàn)出顯著提高(Myhre et al., 2017; Quinn, 2018)。而Shin等人(2020)認(rèn)為, 社交媒體使用可能與個體的執(zhí)行功能之間呈倒U型關(guān)系, 即中等程度的社交媒體使用是促進(jìn)執(zhí)行功能的最佳水平。因此, 社交媒體使用對執(zhí)行功能的影響還存在一定的爭議, 本文旨在系統(tǒng)回顧社交媒體使用對個體執(zhí)行功能影響的研究現(xiàn)狀, 為未來針對如何降低社交媒體使用對執(zhí)行功能的消極影響, 促進(jìn)其積極作用提供思路。

2 社交媒體使用影響執(zhí)行功能的表現(xiàn)

2.1 社交媒體使用對執(zhí)行功能的積極效應(yīng)

2.2 社交媒體使用對執(zhí)行功能的消極效應(yīng)

雖然已有研究發(fā)現(xiàn)社交媒體使用會對個體的執(zhí)行功能有促進(jìn)作用, 但是另外一些研究發(fā)現(xiàn), 社交媒體使用會損害個體的執(zhí)行功能(van der Schuur et al., 2019; Wiradhany & Nieuwenstein, 2017; Wiradhany & Koerts, 2019; Madore et al., 2020; Parry et al., 2020)。通過縱向研究發(fā)現(xiàn), 由于越來越多的社交媒體使用取代了對幼兒認(rèn)知發(fā)展有重要作用的活動, 例如操縱游戲和想象力游戲等, 從而可能導(dǎo)致日后幼兒的執(zhí)行功能整體的發(fā)展受到永久性的負(fù)面影響(Mcharg et al., 2020)。有研究對185名學(xué)齡前兒童進(jìn)行為期一年的追蹤, 發(fā)現(xiàn)在控制相關(guān)協(xié)變量之后, 大量使用應(yīng)用程序(≥30分鐘/天)的學(xué)齡前兒童與少量使用應(yīng)用程序(< 30分鐘/天)的相比, 抑制控制能力更差(Mcneill et al., 2019)。針對青少年群體進(jìn)一步展開研究, 結(jié)果表明, 較高的媒體多任務(wù)處理得分與個體執(zhí)行功能的表現(xiàn)(包括工作記憶、轉(zhuǎn)換和抑制任務(wù))均呈負(fù)相關(guān)(Baumgartner et al., 2014; Cain et al., 2016)。高強(qiáng)度媒體多任務(wù)的大學(xué)生在完成Eriksen Filter任務(wù)、AX-CPT任務(wù)、2-back和3-back任務(wù)時(shí), 其反應(yīng)速度和準(zhǔn)確性均差于低強(qiáng)度組, 難以將注意力集中在當(dāng)前的任務(wù)上, 并且具有更多自下而上的注意偏向(Ophir et al., 2009)。Magen (2017)以18～36歲個體為研究對象, 使用健康成人執(zhí)行功能行為評分量表(BRIEF-A, Roth et al., 2013)測驗(yàn)發(fā)現(xiàn), 頻繁在電子媒體上同時(shí)處理多項(xiàng)任務(wù)與較差的執(zhí)行功能有關(guān), 并且社交媒體使用頻率越高, 執(zhí)行功能方面存在越多的困難(Zurcher et al., 2020), 尤其表現(xiàn)在反應(yīng)抑制能力上(Murphy & Creux, 2021)。研究者發(fā)現(xiàn), 高強(qiáng)度媒體多任務(wù)者比低強(qiáng)度媒體多任務(wù)者傾向于更多地使用直覺反應(yīng)系統(tǒng), 并且關(guān)注即時(shí)滿足而非延遲滿足(Schutten et al., 2017), 這表明媒體多任務(wù)處理可能損害個體的抑制控制能力(Baumgartner & Wiradhany, 2021)。

2.3 社交媒體使用與執(zhí)行功能之間呈倒U型關(guān)系

大多數(shù)研究表明, 社交媒體使用與認(rèn)知能力之間存在線性關(guān)系(Ophir et al., 2009; Alzahabi & Becker, 2013; Ralph & Smilek, 2017; Elbe et al., 2019; Zurcher et al., 2020; Murphy & Creux, 2021), 而有研究者提出, 社交媒體使用可能與個體的執(zhí)行功能水平之間呈倒U型關(guān)系, 社交媒體使用并不是一味地?fù)p害或促進(jìn)執(zhí)行功能的發(fā)展, 而是在二者之間存在一個最佳臨界點(diǎn)。研究表明, 在n-back任務(wù)中, 中等強(qiáng)度媒體多任務(wù)者比高、低強(qiáng)度媒體多任務(wù)者表現(xiàn)更好(Minear et al., 2013; Shin et al., 2020), 中等強(qiáng)度的媒體多任務(wù)處理與最佳水平的認(rèn)知控制相關(guān)(例如, 刷新工作記憶中的信息, 過濾干擾刺激) (Cardoso-Leite et al., 2016)。高強(qiáng)度媒體多任務(wù)者在n-back任務(wù)中更容易出現(xiàn)注意力缺失, 更難以專注于任務(wù), 這導(dǎo)致他們停止刷新短時(shí)記憶中的字母, 因此更難記住字母順序, 抑制控制能力更差(Ralph & Smilek, 2017)。低強(qiáng)度媒體多任務(wù)者在執(zhí)行功能任務(wù)中的表現(xiàn)比中等媒體多任務(wù)者更差, 與高強(qiáng)度媒體多任務(wù)者無顯著差異(Cardoso-Leite et al., 2016)。研究者認(rèn)為, 這可能是由于低強(qiáng)度媒體多任務(wù)處理與消極情緒狀態(tài)有關(guān),使個體自我控制能力和成就感降低, 進(jìn)而阻礙執(zhí)行功能的發(fā)展(Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013)。

3 使用強(qiáng)度調(diào)節(jié)社交媒體使用與執(zhí)行功能之間的關(guān)系

社交媒體使用與個體的執(zhí)行功能呈倒U型關(guān)系, 中等程度的社交媒體使用之所以是促進(jìn)執(zhí)行功能的最佳水平, 一個重要原因可能是, 相比于高強(qiáng)度或低強(qiáng)度的社交媒體使用水平, 中等強(qiáng)度的社交媒體使用會引發(fā)更高水平的社交媒體心流(Katahira et al., 2018; de Sampaio Barros et al., 2018; Harmat et al., 2015; Keller & Bless, 2008; Keller et al., 2011; Yoshida et al., 2014)。社交媒體心流(social media flow, SM flow)是當(dāng)人們完全沉浸于使用智能手機(jī)等電子工具進(jìn)行娛樂、信息搜索和社交活動時(shí), 所產(chǎn)生的一種最佳體驗(yàn), 表現(xiàn)為在使用社交媒體時(shí)持續(xù)專注和愉悅的心理狀態(tài)(Leung, 2020)。通常采用專注、時(shí)間失真、臨場呈現(xiàn)、享受和好奇五個維度來評估社交媒體心流的程度(Kwak et al., 2014)。當(dāng)社交媒體使用強(qiáng)度處于適中水平時(shí), 社交媒體心流處于一種無需任何心理努力的特殊注意狀態(tài)(Ullén et al., 2010), 與個體高水平的認(rèn)知控制、專注投入有關(guān)(Katahira et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2013), 使得個體在面對社交媒體中各種復(fù)雜的信息刺激時(shí), 過濾各種干擾信息, 將注意集中于有用的信息, 目標(biāo)信息則不斷地被儲存和更新, 個體的執(zhí)行功能(尤其是刷新功能)在這樣的要求下得到長期而反復(fù)的鍛煉, 最終得以提升(Alloway et al., 2013)。此外, 社交媒體使用所產(chǎn)生的心流體驗(yàn)可以作為一種內(nèi)在使用動機(jī), 通過增加社交網(wǎng)絡(luò)的互動, 使得人際關(guān)系的積極變化(Kwak et al., 2014), 這也為個體提供了持續(xù)不斷的社會獎勵, 包括各種關(guān)于社交聯(lián)系或聲譽(yù)提升的功能(Meshi et al., 2015)。形成和維持社會互動與獎賞相關(guān)的神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)有關(guān), 當(dāng)個體接收來自社交媒體的積極社會反饋時(shí)(例如, 得到別人的點(diǎn)贊、評論等)可以激活有關(guān)社會獎勵的大腦區(qū)域(Sherman et al., 2016), 包括紋狀體和腹側(cè)被蓋區(qū)(Fareri & Delgado, 2014; Ruff & Fehr, 2014; Sherman et al., 2018)。因此, 當(dāng)個體適度使用社交媒體, 作為改善其現(xiàn)有社會資本的工具時(shí), 則會對執(zhí)行功能起到保護(hù)作用(Sanbonmatsu et al., 2013; Khoo & Yang, 2020; Baumgartner & Wiradhany, 2021), 能在一定程度上緩沖過度使用社交媒體對認(rèn)知功能的消極影響, 減緩與年齡有關(guān)的執(zhí)行功能衰退(Myhre et al., 2017; Quinn, 2018; Glaser et al., 2018)。社交媒體心流可以擴(kuò)大和維護(hù)社會關(guān)系來獲得更多的情感支持, 從而對執(zhí)行功能(尤其是抑制能力)有益(Zuelsdorff et al., 2019)。

因此, 中等強(qiáng)度的社交媒體使用會產(chǎn)生更高水平的社交媒體心流, 使注意集中于目標(biāo)信息, 并為個體提供了持續(xù)不斷的社會獎勵和情感支持, 從而使得執(zhí)行功能最終得以提升。

前人通過研究發(fā)現(xiàn), 社交媒體心流與注意活動的神經(jīng)生理學(xué)指標(biāo)高度相關(guān)(Yoshida et al., 2014), 即個體在社交媒體使用時(shí)所產(chǎn)生的心流體驗(yàn)與外側(cè)額葉皮層(額下回)的激活增加和內(nèi)側(cè)前額葉皮層的激活減少有關(guān)(Ulrich et al., 2014; Yoshida et al., 2014), 由于額頂葉網(wǎng)絡(luò)的外側(cè)部分通常參與自上而下的注意和任務(wù)中的持續(xù)注意(Corbetta & Schulman, 2002), 而內(nèi)側(cè)額葉皮層經(jīng)常與任務(wù)中出現(xiàn)的思維游離和自我專注有關(guān)(Esterman et al., 2014), 當(dāng)自我控制資源由于執(zhí)行其他媒體任務(wù)而處于損耗狀態(tài)時(shí), 這種自上而下的認(rèn)知控制損耗會降低前額葉功能的相對優(yōu)勢, 進(jìn)而導(dǎo)致執(zhí)行功能失敗(Berkman & Miller-Ziegler, 2012), 從而導(dǎo)致個體無法控制自己的注意力或自我調(diào)節(jié)行為, 而注意力的集中以及忽視干擾刺激的能力是執(zhí)行功能的核心(Farah, 2017)。因此在頻繁進(jìn)行媒體多任務(wù)的過程中, 個體會接收和處理大量雜亂且分散的信息, 這種高強(qiáng)度的社交媒體使用導(dǎo)致個體擔(dān)心他們在任務(wù)中的表現(xiàn)(de Sampaio Barros et al., 2018), 從而形成一定的注意偏好(認(rèn)知傾向), 即保持更廣的注意范圍, 傾向于同時(shí)平行加工多個信息(包括無關(guān)信息), 這使個體更容易受到無關(guān)信息的干擾(Ophir et al., 2009; Cain & Mitroff, 2011)。在這種易受干擾的狀態(tài)下, 個體難以將注意集中于目標(biāo)信息, 從而對個體執(zhí)行功能有消極影響(Magen, 2017)。

而低強(qiáng)度社交媒體使用與低感覺尋求有關(guān)(Chang, 2017), 不僅會降低社交媒體心流水平, 導(dǎo)致個體處于缺乏積極主動性的狀態(tài), 缺乏愉悅感, 負(fù)面情緒增加(Lin et al., 2016; Brailovskaia et al., 2020; Dube et al., 2020), 并且因?yàn)樯缃幻襟w本身就具有存儲信息的功能, 個體會更少地加工和存儲信息, 這使得信息加工的心理努力過程縮減甚至消失(Sparrow et al., 2011), 任務(wù)投入度降低(Wu et al., 2013), 人們只需記住一些關(guān)于信息的線索而無需記住信息本身, 個體大腦的認(rèn)知功能被社交媒體所替代, 久而久之, 個體的認(rèn)知功能失去訓(xùn)練的機(jī)會, 當(dāng)脫離了社交媒體后, 便無法對當(dāng)前信息進(jìn)行有效地存儲和加工, 信息處理不足, 從而對個體的執(zhí)行功能有負(fù)面影響(Kahn & Martinez, 2020)。

因此, 高強(qiáng)度的社交媒體使用導(dǎo)致個體擔(dān)心他們在任務(wù)中的表現(xiàn), 從而傾向于保持更廣的注意范圍, 更易受到無關(guān)信息的干擾, 而低強(qiáng)度的社交媒體使用導(dǎo)致個體處于缺乏積極主動性的狀態(tài), 信息加工的心理努力過程縮減甚至消失, 從而對執(zhí)行功能產(chǎn)生消極影響。

4 研究展望

綜上所述, 社交媒體使用對執(zhí)行功能的影響尚存爭議, 使用強(qiáng)度可能在二者關(guān)系中起調(diào)節(jié)作用, 未來仍有一些問題需要進(jìn)一步探索。

首先, 關(guān)注社交媒體使用對執(zhí)行功能的“劑量效應(yīng)”, 即社交媒體使用不同測量指標(biāo)(社交媒體使用成癮; 使用時(shí)間; 使用頻率; 使用強(qiáng)度)單獨(dú)和交互作用對執(zhí)行功能的影響。研究發(fā)現(xiàn), 社交媒體縱向地以“特質(zhì)”的方式, 而不是簡單地以短期的“狀態(tài)”效應(yīng)影響執(zhí)行功能發(fā)展(McHarg et al., 2020), 如果個體保持適度的使用時(shí)間和頻率, 社交媒體使用對執(zhí)行功能的消極影響可能不會出現(xiàn)(Mcneill et al., 2019)。因此, 社交媒體使用對執(zhí)行功能的積極影響可能需要一個相對較長和持續(xù)使用社交媒體的過程(Khoo & Yang, 2020)。是否能確定一個最佳的社交媒體使用水平, 使得個體的執(zhí)行功能得到最大提升? 今后可以展開更多的追蹤研究, 考察社交媒體使用作為連續(xù)變量時(shí)對執(zhí)行功能的影響。

其次, 進(jìn)一步明晰不同類型的社交媒體使用與執(zhí)行功能子成分之間的關(guān)系。目前研究主要側(cè)重于社交媒體使用頻率對個體日常生活中執(zhí)行功能的影響研究(Cardoso-Leite et al., 2016; Khoo & Yang, 2020), 而缺乏對社交媒體使用類型對執(zhí)行功能中的單個子成分發(fā)展變化的考察。已有研究發(fā)現(xiàn), 主動性社交媒體使用有助于個體的認(rèn)知發(fā)展(Wang et al, 2014; Xie, 2014), 而被動性社交媒體使用會對個體的認(rèn)知發(fā)展有害(Tandoc et al., 2015), 致使這種分離效應(yīng)的原因在于二者的“目的性”明確與否。此外, 媒體多任務(wù)處理作為個體在日常生活中的一種習(xí)慣化媒體使用模式, 具有很高的自主選擇性(Seddon et al., 2021), 個體如何根據(jù)個人的注意中心和認(rèn)知資源選擇高效率的媒體多任務(wù)類型, 避免媒體多任務(wù)間的相互影響, 最大化利用媒體多任務(wù)處理達(dá)到社交媒體心流狀態(tài), 從而對個體的執(zhí)行功能具有促進(jìn)作用?未來的研究應(yīng)進(jìn)一步細(xì)化探究社交媒體使用類型對執(zhí)行功能的具體影響, 為改善個體的認(rèn)知狀況, 提高執(zhí)行功能提供相應(yīng)的建議。

最后, 未來研究需要關(guān)注不同認(rèn)知水平的個體, 以進(jìn)一步明確社交媒體使用與執(zhí)行功能發(fā)展的關(guān)系。已有研究表明, 執(zhí)行功能與前額葉密切相關(guān)(Gianaros et al., 2007), 社交媒體使用與前額葉的關(guān)聯(lián)在不同的年齡階段存在差異, 社交媒體使用的提升效應(yīng)可能在大腦結(jié)構(gòu)處于變化時(shí)期的群體中更為顯著, 例如, 相較于大腦結(jié)構(gòu)相對穩(wěn)定的成年人, 處于發(fā)育階段的學(xué)齡前兒童和處于退化階段的老年人在使用社交媒體后, 執(zhí)行功能獲益更多(Chan et al., 2016; McNeill et al., 2019; Myhre et al, 2017; Quinn, 2018; Huber et al., 2018; Khoo & Yang, 2020)。以往研究大多只表明了社交媒體使用會改變個體的神經(jīng)通路或大腦的反應(yīng)模式(Meshi et al., 2015; Sherman et al., 2018; Kei et al., 2020), 而對于有關(guān)執(zhí)行功能的生理結(jié)構(gòu)變化是否存在社交媒體使用者認(rèn)知水平的影響知之甚少, 因此, 未來研究應(yīng)結(jié)合行為與認(rèn)知神經(jīng)方法, 考察不同認(rèn)知水平社交媒體使用者在執(zhí)行功能特定任務(wù)中腦區(qū)激活的差異, 從而使社交媒體使用影響執(zhí)行功能的神經(jīng)機(jī)制研究更精確也更全面。

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The impact of social media on executive functions:Beneficial or harmful？

MA Yajie1,2, ZHAO Xin1,2, HE Xiangchun3, REN Liping1,2

(1Key Laboratory of Behavioral and Mental Health of Gansu province, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou 730070, China)(2School of Psychology, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou 730070, China)(3School of Educational Technical, Northwest Normal University, Lanzhou 730070, China)

The effect of social media on executive functions remain controversial. it has to do with social media use intensity inverted U-shaped regulating effect on moderate social media use will generate social media flow, make the attention focused on the target information, and provides individuals with ongoing social rewards and emotional support, beneficial to perform functions, but high and low intensity use social media will damage the executive function. Future research in this area should examine the implications of using social media to further clarify the link between social media use and the development of executive functions. The research should include the dose-effect of social media on executive functions and the use of social media to perform functions, taking individuals' different cognitive levels into account.

social media, executive function, flow experience

B849: C91

2021-04-28

* 國家自然科學(xué)基金(31560283, 62167007), 教育部人文社會科學(xué)研究項(xiàng)目(21XJA190005), 甘肅省“雙一流”科研重點(diǎn)項(xiàng)目(GSSYLXM-01)和西北師范大學(xué)重大科研項(xiàng)目培育計(jì)劃(NWNU-SKZD2021-06)資助。

趙鑫, E-mail: psyzhaoxin@nwnu.edu.cn; 賀相春, E-mail: hxc@nwnu.edu.cn。