西班牙城市阿維拉保存著歐洲最大的完整的中世紀城墻。城墻建于12世紀原先的阿拉伯人定居地廢棄之后。如今，老城完全由25.7 km（16 mi）的城墻包圍。這座防衛(wèi)性質的城墻共有六座城門。城墻上88座半圓形塔樓使得這座城市成為了世界上最好的防衛(wèi)性建筑案例之一。它的中世紀街道兩旁有許多哥特式和羅馬風教堂，因此阿維拉也被稱作“石頭與圣人之城”。

The Spanish city ávila is the largest in Europe to have conserved its medieval town walls completely intact. The walls were constructed in the 12th century after the original settlement was abandoned by the Arabs. Today, 16 miles of walls totally ring the old city. Built for defence, the walls may be entered through six gates. 88 semi-circular towers render this city one of the fi nest examples of defensive architecture in the world.Its medieval streets are lined with an abundance of Gothic and Romanesque churches leading it to be called the ‘Town of Stones and Saints’.

中國的長城由一系列沿著歷史上北側邊界建造的東西向橫跨中國的防御性工事組成。據(jù)估算，明代長城總長約8 851.4 km（5 500 mi），加上其它時期的城段，長度總計達20 921.5 km（13 000 mi）。最早的長城建于公元前7世紀，其后的歲月里又慢慢建起新的城段。公元前3世紀，秦始皇將當時已有的城段連接起來，以組成抵御歐亞草原各游牧部落侵擾的更為強大的屏障。

The Great Wall of China is a series of forti fi cations built across the historical northern borders and along an east to west line crossing China.An estimate of the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) lengths is around 5 500 miles, although when lengths of others pieces of the wall total as much as 13 000 miles. The fi rst walls were built as early as the 7th century BC and new walls were erected over the centuries. In the 3rd century BC,these walls were fi nally linked by Qin Shi Huang (This First Emperor of Qin) to create a stronger barrier against various nomadic groups of the Eurasia steppe.

甘肅省的嘉峪關關城和懸臂長城，由于位于中國明代西部邊界處長城的尾端而被稱為“河西咽口”。它是建于黑山東坡上的一個重要的防御體系，自西向東看時不會被發(fā)現(xiàn)。入侵者以為他們只要繞過嘉峪關，通過黑山峽谷就能進入中國，但這道意料之外的城墻成為了入侵者路線上堅固的障礙。1987年的修復城段用當?shù)氐纳暗[和一層層夯實的黃土構成，僅僅只有1.6 km（1 mi）長。從400級臺階登上頂端，便會看到周圍沙漠的廣袤與荒涼，可想而知，在這西部崗哨，生活曾經(jīng)多么艱苦而頑強。

Jiayuguan Fort and Overhanging Great Wall in Gansu Province is known as ‘the mouth of China’ because of its position at the end of the Great Wall of the western boundary of Ming Dynasty China. It is an important defence network built on the eastern slope of Black Mountain and is not visible to anyone looking from west to east. Aggressors thought they could enter China from Black Mountain Canyon as long as they rounded the Jiayu Pass, but this impressive wall became a fi rm obstacle to the path of invaders. Built from local gravel and layer upon layer of rammed yellow earth, this 1987 restoration is only a mile long. From atop the 400 steps to the summit, one can observe the vastness and desolation of the desert landscape and understand how tenacious life must have been at this western post.

圣吉米利亞諾是意大利一座中世紀山城，其歷史可以追溯到羅馬時期。這是一座城墻圍護下充滿矛盾的城市。兩圈沉重的石頭城墻旨在保衛(wèi)城中居民免受外來入侵者的傷害。然而，城內貴族們原本用來展示經(jīng)濟地位的塔樓最終卻變成了相互對立的家族發(fā)生流血沖突時的避難所與安全區(qū)。盡管文藝復興時期的畫作通常描繪發(fā)生在歐洲城市城墻之外的大型戰(zhàn)爭場面，圣吉米利亞諾卻有大量表現(xiàn)戰(zhàn)爭場面的繪畫，描繪了弓箭手從一個家族的塔樓窗口向附近另一座塔樓的窗洞射箭的情形。

San Gimigliano is a medieval Italian hill town that dates from Roman times. It is a walled city fi lled with contradictions. Its two layers of heavystone city walls were a defensive concept intended to protect the townspeople from outside intruders. Yet the towers of the nobility located within the walls, built initially to display economic prowess, eventually became havens of retreat, safe zones for families feuding with rival families within the city walls. While Rennaisance paintings depicting the great battle scenes outside the walled cities of Europe are common, numerous such battle scenes inside the walls of San Gimigliano illustrate archers shooting from the high windows of one family tower to that of a neighbouring tower.

這座城市美麗的輪廓確實已令人印象深刻，不過觀看它歷史上遺留下來的畫作也足以了解其實際環(huán)境的優(yōu)雅。如今，圣吉米利亞諾還保留著十三座塔樓，而在十四世紀時曾經(jīng)有七十二座。圣吉米利亞諾城墻之內還有三處尺度宜人的廣場：第一座是為教堂和宗教功能而建；第二座在公共市民建筑和政府大樓前；第三座也是最大的一座，有一處公共噴泉，一個容納集市和用于慶祝集會的會場，歌頌著普通市民的生活。這些開放空間與狹窄街景上高聳的塔樓結合，共同賦予這座城市獨特的建筑體驗。

While the silhouette of this handsome walled city is indeed impressive, one need only review the paintings of centuries past to understand the true elegance of this lovely setting. Today, 13 of San Gimignano’s towers remain. In the 14th century, that number was 72! Also contained within San Gimignano’s city walls are three delightfully scaled piazzas, one planned for church and religious functions, the second fronting formal civil and government monuments, and the third and largest, a public piazza featuring a public water fountain, a forum for markets, fairs and gatherings to celebrate life. These open spaces join with narrow street vistas featuring soaring towers to make this city a special architectural experience.

印加文明的薩克塞瓦曼堡是世界歷史上巨石建筑中最為壯麗的一座。在15世紀的印加王帕查庫蒂統(tǒng)治下建起的這些精確拼接的石墻，正好位于印加首都，如今的秘魯城市庫斯科高處。在既不使用推拉器械也沒有輪子的情況下，印加手工藝者建出了有著三層共約500 m（1 600 ft）高的“之”字形圍墻的宏偉城堡，墻體全部由平均高3 m—4 m（10 ft—12 ft），重逾百噸的多邊形花崗巖石構成。上層的一塊巨石甚至高過5 m（15 ft），重達360 t。印加的石匠僅僅使用石質和銅質工具就精確切割出這些石塊，使它們之間的縫隙甚至無法塞進一張紙。

The Inca fortress of Sacsayhuaman is arguably the most magni fi cent architectural accomplishment of colossal stone masonry in the history of the world. Its precisely crafted stone walls were constructed in the 15th century during the reign of Emperor Pachacuti, just above the Inca capital of Cusco, Peru. Without the use of draft animals or the existence of the wheel, Inca craftsman fashioned the massive fortress, three levels of zigzag walls some 1 600 feet in length, of polygonal-shaped granite stones averaging 10–12 feet in height and over 100 tons in weight. One great stone at the upper level is over 15 feet in height and weighs 360 tons! Using only stone and bronze tools, the stonemasons shaped the granitestones so accurately that not even a sheet of paper can fi t between the stones.

在印加統(tǒng)治下，印加的能工巧匠與2萬多名其它戰(zhàn)爭中俘獲的工匠一起工作。時間已經(jīng)證明了印加建筑師設計三層分明的退臺建筑的效能。五個多世紀以來，這一偉大工程經(jīng)歷多次大地震仍舊屹立如初，而這些自然災害曾多次摧毀庫斯科城，并且使西班牙人建造的殖民地教堂與公共建筑傾倒。如今，印加文明的蓋丘亞印第安人后裔每年都聚集于堡墻之上，在冬至日這一天舉行太陽節(jié)，以迎接他們的農業(yè)文化中白晝長于黑夜的又一次輪回。

Under Inca reign, the skilled Inca labourers were joined by workforce of 20 000 others conquered in battle. Time has proven the effciency of the Inca architects who designed the three distinct terraces which recede backwards on each other. The result of this engineering feat is astructure that has withstood major earthquakes for over fi ve centuries, natural disasters which have regularly devastated the city of Cusco and toppled colonial churches and public buildings built by the Spanish. Today, as in historical times, Quechua Indian descendants of the Incas gather annually on the walls to celebrate Inti Raymi, the winter solstice feast that welcomes the return of longer days of sun into their agrarian culture.

阿伊特本哈杜是一座位于摩洛哥阿特拉斯高地的柏柏爾人村莊。村莊圍墻環(huán)繞， 內有夯土和泥磚建造的城堡、村落及土坯房。盡管現(xiàn)在只有少數(shù)居民定居于此，但歷史上村子曾經(jīng)是聯(lián)系撒哈拉沙漠與馬拉喀什的一處重要的大篷車驛站。大篷車還運送南方來的貿易品，其中包括鹽、金子甚至奴隸。在通過阿特拉斯山脈的眾多商路中，這條路線利潤最多。時至今日，駱駝和商人仍在瓦爾扎扎特河沿岸城市的郊外逗留。

Ait Benhaddou is a Berber village located in the High Atlas of Morocco. This walled settlement consists of kasbahs, ksars and earth houses,all of rammed earth and mud brick wall construction. Although it is the permanent home of only a few residents today, it once served as a major caravan stop linking the Sahara Desert to Marrakesh. These caravans brought trade from the south that included salt, gold and even slaves. This was a most lucrative trade route through the Atlas Mountains. Even today, camels and traders linger outside the city along the Ouarzazate River.

村落高高地坐落在夯土墻基之上，幾何形狀的設計與隱拱的使用證明著這座美麗山村建筑上的光輝。在阿伊特本哈杜村的大門外，河岸邊的蘆葦叢和棕櫚果樹與鵝卵石鋪就的狹窄街道、臺階和小巷組成的迷宮相連，村中依然有人居住在有著深紅色泥墻和風化了的木門的房子里。如今，村莊成為了摩洛哥主要的電影工作室在蘇斯 · 馬薩 · 德拉地區(qū)的一處取景地。一些質量上乘、廣受好評的電影曾在這里誕生，其中包括大衛(wèi) · 里恩的《阿拉伯的勞倫斯》、貝納爾多 · 貝托魯奇的《遮蔽的天空》，以及雷德利 · 斯科特的《角斗士》。

High atop the rammed earth foundation walls, the geometric designs and blind arches attest to the architectural glory of this handsome mountain village. Beyond the village gate which links the reed rushes and date palms at rivers edge to the labyrinth of narrow cobble-pavedstreets, stairs and alleyways, Ait Benhaddou still contains a few inhabited houses with dark redpiséwalls and weathered wooden doors. Today,the village thrives as a fi lm setting for Morocco’s major fi lm studio beyond the Souss Massa Draa. Its credits include a number of high quality,critically acclaimed fi lms: David Lean’s Lawrence of Arabia, Bernardo Bertolucci’s Sheltering Sky, and Ridley Scott’s Gladiator.

與許多真正的紀念性建筑一樣，中國長城的建成緣于統(tǒng)治者和軍隊領導者在財富、權力以及當?shù)貏趧恿ι系木薮笸度耄约皩ν獠寇娛聞酉虻年P注。它恰當?shù)乩昧水數(shù)亟ú暮偷胤郊夹g來建造。美學并非建造長城時主要考慮的因素，它幾乎完全遵從基本的建造邏輯和建造方式，謹慎地處理自然地形、沙漠、森林、河流或山區(qū)。由于建造長城是為了讓它能長期屹立并能承受戰(zhàn)爭的破壞，歷經(jīng)歲月洗禮，長城表現(xiàn)出非凡的壯美，有時甚至帶有浪漫情調，并且與大地融為一體。

Like most truly monumental works of architecture, Great Wall of China was made possible by the commitment of rulers and military leaders with great wealth, power and access to a local workforce as well as outsiders under military direction. It generally draws upon the availability of appropriate local building materials and regional construction skills. While aesthetics were not a major consideration in building the Great Wall,it almost always follows logical, common sense approaches to building addressing the natural landscape, desert, forest, river or mountainous areas with attention. Because the wall was intended to last centuries and withstand the forces of battle, the resultant architecture is often one of great beauty, even romance, and oneness with the land.

作為北側的屏障，慕田峪長城位于北京北郊，距北京約64.4 km（40 mi），為守衛(wèi)都城和皇家陵寢而建。城墻由巖石塊構成堅固的基礎，其上砌筑城磚，這樣可以在建造如此長的一段城墻時保證速度。城墻高度在4 m（12 ft）到8 m（25 ft）之間，兩側均有城垛，這樣在城墻的任意位置都可進行雙面防御。雖然長城主要用于防衛(wèi)，但同時也為絲綢之路上的貨物往來進行邊境管制并收取稅費，扮演著貿易管理者和移民控制者的角色；此外，長城還建有哨塔、兵營和城關。

Mutianyu, located 40 miles north of Beijing, was built to serve as the northern barrier defending the Capital and the Imperial Tombs. The wall featured cut granite blocks as the foundation for strength, and brick at the upper wall and for its long lengths for speed of construction. It ranges from 12 to 25 feet in height, both sides topped with crenellations in order that it could be defended along its length. Although built primarily for defence, the Great Wall also functioned as a border control allowing the imposition of taxes on goods transport along the Silk Road,as a regulator of trade and control of immigration, and included sentinel towers, military barracks and garrison.

印度拉賈斯坦的杰伊瑟爾梅爾金色城堡宏偉的黃色砂巖墻與法國卡爾卡松城巨大的城墻都占據(jù)高處，它們俯瞰著腳下延伸的城鎮(zhèn)?？柨ㄋ梢苍S可以算作歐洲最負盛名的有城墻的城市，它的歷史可以上溯至古羅馬時期。它位于聯(lián)系中央高原與比利牛斯山脈、大西洋與地中海的兩條歷史商路之間。與之類似，金色城堡位于塔爾沙漠邊緣聯(lián)系中亞與中東和北非的商路之上。城墻之內有許多宮殿、廟宇、市場和住房，商人們在其中建起他們精巧的哈維利住宅。

The massive yellow sandstone walls of Jaisalmer’s Golden Fort in Rajasthan, India, and the expansive ramparts of France’s walled city of Carcassonne dominate the high ground and overlook the expanded town below. Carcassonne is perhaps the most famous of Europe’s walled cities and dates from Roman times. It is located between historical trading routes linking the Massif Central to the Pyrenees and the Atlantic to the Mediterranean Sea. Similarly, the Golden Fort lies at the edge of the Thar Desert on the caravan route linking Central Asia to the Middle East and North Africa. Merchants built elaborately designedhavelisamong the numerous palaces and temples bazaars and residences inside the walls of the walled complex.