Atul Kumar,S.R.Samadder（翻譯：張本民 ）

（1.Departmentof Environmental Science&Engineering,Indian Instituteof Technology（Indian School of Mines）,Dhanbad 826004,India；2.惠州市質(zhì)量計量監(jiān)督檢測所，廣東惠州516003）

（上接2018年1月第1期）

4.2 生物轉(zhuǎn)換技術(shù)

生物轉(zhuǎn)換技術(shù)基于微生物對MSW中的有機成分降解。許多研究者報道過這種技術(shù)當(dāng)環(huán)境合適時用于廢棄物能量回收(Pant et al.,2010)。通常廢棄物中有機生物可降解物質(zhì)含量高（易腐敗的）、濕度大時，是一種首選處理方法。生物轉(zhuǎn)換技術(shù)用于能量回收有兩種方式，分別為厭氧消化和生物產(chǎn)甲烷。

4.2.1 厭氧消化

厭氧消化（或生物產(chǎn)甲烷）是一種含氧條件下微生物降解有機可降解物質(zhì)的過程，可產(chǎn)生物氣和穩(wěn)定的污泥。所產(chǎn)生物氣的質(zhì)量取決于處理條件和底物組成；通常，生物氣由 50% ～75% 的 CH4，25% ～50%CO2和1%～15%其它氣體（如水蒸汽、NH3、H2S 等）(Surendra et al.,2014)。所產(chǎn)污泥可以用于土壤調(diào)節(jié)劑或作為農(nóng)業(yè)領(lǐng)域上一種有機修護劑 (Pivato et al.,2016;Tam boneet al.,2009)。厭氧消化常被用來從可降解廢棄物中回收營養(yǎng)和能量。據(jù)Aliet al.(2016)報道，厭氧消化的固體產(chǎn)物質(zhì)量（作為一種肥料）主要跟廢棄物原料的質(zhì)量有關(guān)（廢棄物中蛋白質(zhì)、礦物質(zhì)和維生素含量）。據(jù)Brow ne et al.(2014)報道，歐盟法規(guī)禁止將厭氧消化的固體產(chǎn)物作為肥料使用，因為廢棄物原料中存在不理想物質(zhì)。厭氧消化時，可降解MSW中有機物便會降解，通過一系列階段轉(zhuǎn)化為甲烷。最初的階段稱為水解，在此階段MSW中復(fù)雜的有機化合物如碳水化合物、蛋白質(zhì)和脂肪轉(zhuǎn)化為可溶解有機物如糖類、氨基酸和脂肪酸。厭氧消化過程下一階段為發(fā)酵，有機分子分解為乙酸、H2和CO2。最后階段是產(chǎn)甲烷，在此階段甲烷開始生成。有機物質(zhì)轉(zhuǎn)化為甲烷的詳細流程如圖4。厭氧消化過程主要分主兩種類型，“濕消化”（干基含量10%～15%）和“干消化”（干基含量24%～40%）過程(Luning et al.,2003)。濕消化過程產(chǎn)生更多液態(tài)廢棄物和較少固態(tài)產(chǎn)品。濕消化處理對反應(yīng)器的體積要求不如干消化處理高。反應(yīng)器的類型（單階段和多階段）、處理過程（干或濕處理）和甲烷產(chǎn)量取決于地區(qū)、廢棄物原料質(zhì)量和產(chǎn)物要求。

據(jù)估計，每噸MSW經(jīng)厭氧消化在三周內(nèi)甲烷的產(chǎn)量比填埋處理6～7年回收的甲烷量高出2～4倍(Ahsan,1999;Saxena et al.,2009)。據(jù) M urphyet al.(2004)報道，以轉(zhuǎn)化效率35%計算算，厭氧消化處理產(chǎn)生1m3生物氣可以發(fā)電2.04kW h。若考慮MSW含60%有機物和40%水分，則每噸MSW可產(chǎn)甲烷150kg(Scarlat et al.,2015)。然而，處理過程中主要的問題是微生物反應(yīng)周期太長（一般20～40天）(Pham et al.,2015)。有時，廢棄物中存在含氮豐富的組分和陽離子（如鈉、鉀、鈣）會增加氨和鹽濃度，從而使產(chǎn)甲烷過程中出現(xiàn)有毒物。一些研究(Gom ez et al.,2006;Cristancho 和 Are llano,2006)建議，廢棄物氮含量低的MSW、污水污泥、食物廢棄物采用混合消化以降低氨濃度，增加處理過程中生物氣的產(chǎn)量。表6總結(jié)了MSW有機組分在許多研究者報道過的不同操作條件下的甲烷產(chǎn)量。大多數(shù)研究者使用食物垃圾加入合適的培養(yǎng)液，進行氣體最大化回收。使用厭氧消化技術(shù)所產(chǎn)生物氣的質(zhì)量可以通過移除CO2和其它微量氣體改善，進而用作運輸燃料，稱為生物甲烷。這種生物氣可以替代天然氣在許多家庭和企業(yè)上應(yīng)用 (Kasturirangan,2014;Appels et al.,2008)。早期，厭氧消化用于生活污水、工作廢棄物、有機廢棄物和動物糞便的處理，但現(xiàn)在廣泛用于MSW能量回收，尤其在發(fā)展中國家，因其廢棄物濕度比較大 (Yap and Nixon,2015)。Abbas et al.(2017)和 Aliet al.(2013a,b)評價了生物氣回收的可行性，發(fā)現(xiàn)通過厭氧消化技術(shù)回收生物氣經(jīng)濟、環(huán)境上具有可持續(xù)性。

4.3 填埋法

衛(wèi)生填埋是指為了減少環(huán)境負面影響，通過生物氣回收和瀝出液管理的方式在陸地上有控制的處理廢棄物（圖5）。然而，非衛(wèi)生填埋提供了一種更簡單更廉價處理大量增加廢棄物的方式，在發(fā)展中國家是最常見的處理方法，將為對環(huán)境產(chǎn)生很嚴重的危害(W ang and Geng,2015)。前人的研究表明，與其它廢棄物管理方法相比填埋產(chǎn)生的環(huán)境影響最大(Cherubiniet al.,2009;Em ery et al.,2007;M archettini et al.,2007;ISWA,2012)。據(jù)報道，大部分發(fā)展中國家城市，在城市郊外的低洼區(qū)域處理廢棄物 (Talyan et al.,2008;Kum ar and Chakrabarti,2010)。當(dāng)考慮到如環(huán)境影響、健康影響、土地退化、地下水污染的因素時，填埋法將成為最糟糕的選擇。然而，發(fā)達國家已經(jīng)開始通過立法、減排、循環(huán)利用抵制廢棄物填埋處理。填埋產(chǎn)生的瀝液（一種成分復(fù)雜，含有難降解化合物的深色廢水，）是一種從填埋物或垃圾儲存站釋放的主要污染物 (Müller et al.,2015)，會污染周圍地表河道和地下含水層。據(jù)專家介紹，僅總廢棄物的10%～15%應(yīng)該采用填埋法，而且應(yīng)是土地有限的城市最后的選擇。

表6 MSW厭氧消化甲烷產(chǎn)量

4.3.1 填埋產(chǎn)氣模擬

填埋場沉積物中殘留的有機物質(zhì)經(jīng)歷了復(fù)雜的生物和化學(xué)降解，結(jié)果有填埋氣體（LFG）產(chǎn)生。有機物質(zhì)降解產(chǎn)生LFG發(fā)生在5個不同階段(Noor et al.,2013)。第一階段是水解/好氧消化，在此階段好氧菌將復(fù)雜有機物分解為CO2和H2O，第二階段是水解和發(fā)酵，在兼性細菌存在下，水溶性有機成分分解為CO2、H2、NH3和有機酸。第三階段是酸化/乙酸化，第二階段產(chǎn)生的有機酸通過厭氧菌轉(zhuǎn)化為乙酸、甲酸、乙醇、H2和CO2。在第四階段（甲烷生成），產(chǎn)甲烷菌消耗第三階段產(chǎn)物，并且主要產(chǎn)生CH4、CO2，以及少量其他微量氣體。最后階段是氧化，本階段在需氧條件下CH4轉(zhuǎn)化為CO2和H2O。填埋場內(nèi)部LFG產(chǎn)率受許多因素影響，如填埋場類型、廢棄物組成、氣候條件（溫度和降水）、含水量和廢棄物存放時間(Scarlat et al.,2015)。LFG中含50%～60%甲烷(Unnikrishnan and Singh,2010)并且被認為是人工產(chǎn)甲烷的主要來源之一。據(jù)估計，每年從垃圾填埋場產(chǎn)生甲烷氣體為3000～7000萬噸(Johariet al.,2012)。因此，從填埋場回收甲烷用于發(fā)電或其它用途可以幫助減排。有時LFG回收技術(shù)上不可行，因為那種情況LFG當(dāng)場就已被燃燒。但是，在這種情況下有必要對填埋場內(nèi)部LFG預(yù)測。推薦的方法涉及到LFG生成模擬。有許多可以使用的模型預(yù)測填埋場甲烷的釋放。表7描述一些廣泛使用的模型（七種）。然而，由于不同國家的廢棄物組成不同，對同一種填埋場來說不同的模型會得出不同結(jié)果，這些模型已經(jīng)被開發(fā)可為該地區(qū)提供準(zhǔn)確的結(jié)果。在這七種模型中，六種基于歐盟情況，一種基于美國情況。這些模型減少了冗長的測量技術(shù)，通常應(yīng)用于垃圾填埋場甲烷含量預(yù)測。盡管TNO模型根據(jù)荷蘭廢棄物特點而建立，但這種模型也可以用于其他國家LFG預(yù)測，因為在觀測值和計算值之間它的相對誤差很低（22%）。在一項研究中，據(jù)估計，1噸MSW產(chǎn)生80m 3LFG，到2020年時，僅中國或許就能為全球LFG排放貢獻100億m3(Qu et al.,2009)。

5 W T E技術(shù)能量回收潛力和經(jīng)濟情況

目前，中國每年廢棄物產(chǎn)量3億噸(W orld Energy Resources,2016)，廢棄物中包含較多低熱值食物垃圾，以及與其他發(fā)展中國家類似的高濕度組分。所以，發(fā)達國家使用的傳統(tǒng)焚燒廠在此條件下處理效果不佳。因而，中國已經(jīng)在焚燒廠基礎(chǔ)上發(fā)展了循環(huán)流化床應(yīng)對這種問題，目前28套此種設(shè)備每天處理800噸MSW成功發(fā)電(W orld Energy Resources,2016;Zhao et al.,2016)。據(jù) Cheng et al.(2007)報道，基于循環(huán)流化床焚燒器的壁爐更適用于高濕度低能量的MSW。在埃塞俄比亞一種容量50MW的廢棄物焚燒廠（非洲撒哈拉以南第一個WTE設(shè)備）預(yù)計2017年投入使用，每年可以處理35萬噸廢棄物。然而，由于許多問題存在，如MSW熱值低，缺乏當(dāng)?shù)貙I(yè)技術(shù)以及能量價格低，該廠或許運營成本不足(W orld Energy Resources,2016)。據(jù) Perkoulidis et al.(2010)報道，在希臘中部一套WTE設(shè)備凈轉(zhuǎn)化率為22.5%時預(yù)計每噸MSW產(chǎn)電0.55MW。按照估計，到2020年馬來西亞預(yù)計僅從LFG中可產(chǎn)電2.63×109kW h，將為馬來西亞產(chǎn)生26200萬美元的稅收(Noor et al.,2013)。希臘直轄市五所厭氧消化廠的產(chǎn)能潛力為695kW h/噸，平均操作成本為85MYM/噸(Karagiannidis和Perkoulidis,2009)。巴西僅MSW填埋廠的產(chǎn)能潛力約為每天660MW電力。本研究綜述了100多篇2010～2017年發(fā)表，關(guān)于W TE技術(shù)的文獻，其中一些針對不同國家WTE技術(shù)選擇的重要點評文獻總結(jié)如表8。大多數(shù)表8所列研究中，WTE選擇被認為是一種對環(huán)境影響最小的潛力技術(shù)。

前人發(fā)表的文獻分析了不同WTE技術(shù)的成本 (Ouda et al.,2016;Yap和Nixon,2015;Tolis et al.,2010)，如表9。資本成本是首要投資成本如土地征收、設(shè)備采購、原材料需求；間接成本包括計劃成本、合同支持和發(fā)展階段的技術(shù)金融服務(wù)。操作成本是日常運行成本如勞務(wù)和維護成本。一家WTE廠的資本成本與需要處理的廢棄物質(zhì)量、采用的技術(shù)和廠的位置有關(guān)。一套WTE設(shè)備的平均壽命一般認為30年。表9為所需的成本范圍，對發(fā)達和發(fā)展中國家均有效。一系列成本范圍中低值代表發(fā)展中國家（如印度）所需成本，高值代表在發(fā)達國家的成本（如英國）(Yap and Nixon,2015)。表9顯示的成本為估算成本，因為實際成本還與許多其它因素關(guān)，如政府激勵、原材料和熟練工人的可用性。(Ouda et al.,2016)。

6 環(huán)境和健康影響

MSW焚燒或許導(dǎo)致空氣污染（由于SOX、NOX、COX、二噁英和呋喃的排放），土壤和水污染（由于飛灰和底灰中存在重金屬）。但是，用于焚燒的污染控制技術(shù)和能量回收系統(tǒng)已經(jīng)大大發(fā)展，使其成為一種有吸引力的MSWM選擇(Dam gaard et al.,2010)。焚燒廠使用的空氣污染設(shè)備主要捕獲顆粒物、氧化氮、二噁英和呋喃，對環(huán)境的影響比傳統(tǒng)火力發(fā)電廠還小(Liam sanguan和Gheew ala,2007)。

大量研究報道了廢棄物焚燒場所能感知到的健康風(fēng)險。甚至發(fā)達國家（如英國）也正面對公共抵制，因為焚燒廠的排放物帶來了可感知的健康危害(Nixon et al.,2013a,b)。盡管焚燒器潛在排放大量污染物，但主要關(guān)注的已經(jīng)是稱為“二噁英”類的有機化合物，如多氯代二苯并二惡英、多氯代二苯并呋喃和多氯聯(lián)苯，均由不完全燃燒產(chǎn)生。國際癌癥研究機構(gòu)通過實驗室動物實驗和對生活在工業(yè)區(qū)的群體研究認為二噁英為高度致癌物(Giusti,2009)。然而，關(guān)于焚燒場對公共健康的影響許多研究報道了不全面和無說服力的結(jié)果 (W orld Energy Resources,2016)。一種開發(fā)和控制良好的系統(tǒng)對廢棄物焚燒項目成功有效進行是非常重要的。

7 對氣候變化的影響

關(guān)于WTE廠和其它MSWN選擇對氣候變化影響的研究大都基于發(fā)達國家(UNEP,2010)。氣候變化是一個全球性問題需要各國共同努力解決。實施技術(shù)減少溫室氣體排放是非常重要的，緩解以傳統(tǒng)方式產(chǎn)能耗能帶來的氣候變化(IPCC,2007)。MSW已經(jīng)被認為是環(huán)境中第三大人工甲烷來源，占全球人工溫室氣體排放的3%～4%(Annepu,2012;IPCC,2006)，總廢棄物部分將有18%的全球甲烷氣體排放 (Aleluia and Ferro,2016)。目前，還沒有完全建立的方法直接測量填埋場甲烷排放量，所以基于大量假設(shè)的理論模型被使用(UNEP,2010)。甲烷含能高，需要一種模式巧妙地捕獲后將其作為能源，從而避免大量潛在溫室氣體排放（比CO2強21倍）。廢棄物最少化以及循環(huán)利用可有效減少溫室氣體排放 (Aliet al.,2013a,b)。據(jù)Aracil et al.(2017)報道，MSW（非循環(huán)）所產(chǎn)生物燃料將對氣候變化帶來積極影響。W TE技術(shù)的全球變暖潛力如表10。W ilson et al.(2010)估計使用3Rs（減排、重用、循環(huán)）原則綜合管理固體廢棄物可以減少15%～15%全爾溫室氣體排放。

表7 甲烷生成潛力的模型描述

8 結(jié)論

本文對用于能量回收的不同WTE技術(shù)進行了全面綜述。嘗試總結(jié)了目前全球WTE部門的案例。如果采用WTE技術(shù)，MSW可被認為最有潛力的可再生能源之一，不僅可以減少對傳統(tǒng)能源的依賴，滿足不斷增加的能源需求，也可以減少MSWM的問題。綜述了所有可用WTE技術(shù)后，可以看出在發(fā)展中國家最可行的MSWN方法是厭氧消化有機廢棄物，焚燒混合MSW（除了可生物降解廢棄物），熱解和煤氣化特定類型廢棄物（塑料、輪胎、電子設(shè)備、電子廢棄物、食物廢棄物等），以及填埋惰性廢棄物。然而MSW的特性和組成在選擇合適的W TE技術(shù)時具有重要作用。

表8 可用WTE選擇案例研究的點評

表9 WTE技術(shù)成本比較

表10 不同廢棄物處理選擇的全球變暖潛力

通過改進WTE技術(shù)用于MSWM可以大大減少溫室氣體排放。在發(fā)達國家WTE技術(shù)已廣泛用于高效管理MSW。然而，在大多數(shù)發(fā)展中國家WTE設(shè)備缺少合適的基礎(chǔ)設(shè)施、污染控制系統(tǒng)和維護技術(shù)。本研究發(fā)現(xiàn)在多數(shù)發(fā)達國家WTE部門已完善并優(yōu)先使用，技術(shù)成熟。發(fā)達國家更加注重處理效率、循環(huán)/回收和污染控制策略。在發(fā)展中國家，根據(jù)國家法規(guī)和需求開發(fā)WTE設(shè)備很重要。WTE廠在一些發(fā)展中國家已經(jīng)建立，只是很小規(guī)模。

政府政策和法規(guī)，金融支持，改善技術(shù)將加強發(fā)展中國家WTE設(shè)備的投產(chǎn)使用。本文將幫助發(fā)達和發(fā)展中國家讀者和戰(zhàn)略決策者識別最佳W TE技術(shù)。

（作者感謝丹巴德印度理工學(xué)院<印度礦業(yè)學(xué)院>，環(huán)境科學(xué)與工程系給予科研工作支持。）

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