亚洲免费av电影一区二区三区,日韩爱爱视频,51精品视频一区二区三区,91视频爱爱,日韩欧美在线播放视频,中文字幕少妇AV,亚洲电影中文字幕,久久久久亚洲av成人网址,久久综合视频网站,国产在线不卡免费播放

        ?

        循環(huán)腫瘤DNA及其在癌癥液體活檢中的應用

        2017-05-04 05:38:18李泰伯美國哈佛大學醫(yī)學院遺傳系馬薩諸塞州波士頓05美國伯德研究所馬薩諸塞州堪布里奇04
        轉(zhuǎn)化醫(yī)學電子雜志 2017年3期
        關(guān)鍵詞:基因突變甲基化結(jié)腸

        李 君,李泰伯(美國哈佛大學醫(yī)學院遺傳系,馬薩諸塞州波士頓05;美國伯德研究所,馬薩諸塞州堪布里奇04)

        ·專家述評·

        循環(huán)腫瘤DNA及其在癌癥液體活檢中的應用

        李 君1,李泰伯2(1美國哈佛大學醫(yī)學院遺傳系,馬薩諸塞州波士頓02115;2美國伯德研究所,馬薩諸塞州堪布里奇02142)

        目前對癌癥組織進行基因分型仍舊是癌癥臨床診斷和治療的黃金依據(jù).然而癌癥組織往往很難獲取,并且無法體現(xiàn)癌癥組織的異質(zhì)性和組織各個部位基因突變的情況,因此出現(xiàn)了許多腫瘤治療方式,甚至包括分子靶向藥的失效.非侵入性的血液液體活檢為解決癌癥異質(zhì)性檢測帶來了新的機遇.血液中的循環(huán)腫瘤DNA(ctDNA)作為生物標記具有對整個腫瘤組織進行基因分型的潛力.本綜述主要闡述ctDNA的如下幾個方面:ctDNA的生物學特性;腫瘤特異性ctDNA突變;ctDNA的表觀遺傳學改變;ctDNA的檢驗方法;ctDNA在腫瘤診斷、治療和預后中的潛在應用.

        循環(huán)腫瘤DNA;液體活檢;診斷、治療和預后

        0 引言

        癌癥是世界范圍內(nèi)導致死亡的主要疾病之一.目前在癌癥診斷的一系列病理檢測中,組織活檢具有重要的地位.癌癥基因分型的材料一般取自組織活檢,分型結(jié)果可以輔助靶向藥物使用的診斷.但是組織活檢仍存在很大的局限性,例如取樣困難,無法反應癌癥組織的異質(zhì)性,同時對癌癥早篩、轉(zhuǎn)移、用藥劑量和預后等作用有限[1-2].循環(huán)腫瘤DNA(circulating tumor DNA,ctDNA)由腫瘤細胞釋放到血液中,往往帶有腫瘤組織的基因突變信息[3].近年來基于ctDNA的液體活檢為癌癥的分子診斷和監(jiān)控提供了新的契機.用ctDNA進行基因突變檢測可以進行癌癥的早期篩查,實時監(jiān)控癌癥的發(fā)展、轉(zhuǎn)移和預后,幫助癌癥用藥的判斷[4-8],因而極大地改進了目前的癌癥診斷方法.

        1 ctDNA的生物學特性

        ctDNA存在于細胞質(zhì)或血清之中,為單鏈或雙鏈DNA,長度約為150~200 bp,半衰期短,約為15分鐘至數(shù)小時(平均約2 h)[9].早期研究表明,ctDNA具有許多同癌癥相關(guān)聯(lián)的特性,比如單核苷酸突變[10-14]、甲基化改變[15-18]以及癌癥引起的病毒序列[19-21],因此被認為是從腫瘤組織中衍生而來.目前認為有三種可能的ctDNA來源:①凋亡或壞死的腫瘤細胞;②活腫瘤細胞;③循環(huán)腫瘤細胞[22-25].實際上,ctDNA極可能有多種而非一種來源.ctDNA攜帶著腫瘤細胞中的基因突變和表觀遺傳學改變,諸如點突變、完整度、序列重排、拷貝數(shù)差異、微衛(wèi)星序列不穩(wěn)定、雜合性缺失和DNA甲基化等[26].

        2 腫瘤特異性ctDNA突變

        2.1 胰腺癌胰腺癌是第一個在ctDNA中發(fā)現(xiàn)特異性突變的實體瘤,其中一個重要原因是KRAS基因經(jīng)常突變且容易檢測.Sorenson等[3]使用了等位基因特異性擴增的方法,在胰腺癌患者的血漿或血清中測定KRAS第12位密碼子的突變.根據(jù)ctDNA檢測原發(fā)性胰腺癌的靈敏度一般為30%~50%,而特異度則會更高,約為90%[27].大部分胰腺癌研究側(cè)重于KRAS突變,因為這種突變發(fā)生率較高.同時,胰管腺癌相較于其它惡性腫瘤而言含有更多的ctDNA,并且轉(zhuǎn)移性病變較非轉(zhuǎn)移性病變含有更多的ctDNA.據(jù)此可見,從生物學和臨床角度,胰腺癌都是使用ctDNA作診斷和預后的理想選擇[28].

        2.2 肺癌非小細胞肺癌(non?small cell lung cancer,NSCLC)攜帶的基因突變常存在于EGFR、KRAS、ALK、HER2、BRAF、ROS1和RET中[29-34].血漿中KRAS基因突變的狀態(tài)可以作為NSCLC患者對EGFR?TKI耐藥的一個預測性標志物.研究[35]表明,血漿KRAS基因突變狀態(tài)與腫瘤組織的一致性為76.7%,KRAS突變可能導致NSCLC患者對EGFR?TKI療效不佳,這可能成為NSCLC患者靶向治療的一個篩選指標.另外,約50%的NSCLC患者因EGFR的突變T790M的出現(xiàn)而出現(xiàn)耐藥[36].這些結(jié)果首先從對EGFR耐藥的NSCLC患者腫瘤組織中發(fā)現(xiàn),隨后從ctDNA中得到驗證,首次提出了可以在患者血液中無創(chuàng)性地檢測實體瘤靶向藥物治療后出現(xiàn)的耐藥性[37].

        2.3 結(jié)腸直腸癌KRAS、APC和TP53在結(jié)腸直腸癌中有很高的突變頻率.這些基因在血清或血漿中的變異狀態(tài)與結(jié)腸直腸癌的診斷、預后和治療反應有關(guān)[38-39].在結(jié)腸直腸癌患者的血清或血漿中,KRAS突變的總體檢測率為25%~50%[39].晚期患者的ctDNA中則檢測到更多KRAS突變[40].同時,ctDNA中的KRAS突變也與術(shù)后復發(fā)的風險呈正相關(guān)[41-42].對于循環(huán)中突變DNA的分析可以同時監(jiān)測結(jié)腸直腸癌患者對于單克隆抗體療法的反應,而這使得療程中反復監(jiān)測患者成為可能[43].對ctDNA中APC基因突變的研究主要集中于外顯子15.外顯子15是結(jié)腸直腸癌中APC突變的熱點.在原發(fā)性結(jié)腸直腸癌中,APC的突變頻率約為45%.而對于TP53而言,約40%的患者樣本被測定出具有這一基因的突變.大部分研究集中在TP53的外顯子4和外顯子8,這也是TP53在結(jié)腸直腸癌中最常見的突變區(qū)域[39].針對KRAS、TP53和APC的基因突變檢測能夠在大約75%的結(jié)腸直腸癌組織樣本中檢測到至少一個基因突變,然而這些突變只能在約45%的患者的血清中檢測到[44].

        3 ctDNA甲基化和表觀遺傳學改變

        在DNA突變之外,甲基化同樣可以影響基因的表達,并在ctDNA中被檢測到.腫瘤發(fā)生不僅受基因調(diào)控,也受到表觀遺傳學的調(diào)控[45].DNA甲基化傾向于發(fā)生在腫瘤抑制基因啟動子區(qū)域的CpG二核苷酸處,從而導致基因沉默[46].ctDNA甲基化檢測主要集中在結(jié)腸直腸癌、肺癌、乳腺癌、胰腺癌,以及其它種類的癌癥.同基因突變相比,DNA甲基化的一致性使得它成為了一個能夠指導診斷、分期、監(jiān)測反應以及患者預后的有前景的生物標記.因此,近些年來甲基化的ctDNA逐漸成為液體活檢的新型目標,并且取得了一些有前景的成果.

        3.1 結(jié)腸直腸癌結(jié)腸直腸癌對于男性和女性來說都是全球范圍內(nèi)第三大常見的癌癥[47].結(jié)腸直腸癌的早期診斷依賴于簡單有效的篩查實驗.研究發(fā)現(xiàn),SEPT9基因的啟動子高甲基化與結(jié)腸直腸癌的發(fā)展高度相關(guān).基于針對SEPT9啟動子甲基化的PCR的回顧性實驗發(fā)現(xiàn),SEPT9啟動子甲基化對結(jié)直腸癌檢測的靈敏度為72%~90%,特異度為88%~90%[48-51].另一項來自美國的研究[50]表明血漿中甲基化的SEPT9 DNA可以篩查72%的結(jié)腸直腸癌,并且實現(xiàn)了93%的特異度.另外,SEPT9的甲基化也在結(jié)腸直腸癌的癌前病變中被發(fā)現(xiàn).其它與結(jié)腸直腸癌有關(guān)的生物標記有APC、RASSF1A和E?鈣黏蛋白[52-53],以及血漿中其它新標記.一項來自德國的研究[54]發(fā)現(xiàn),血清中HLTF和HPP1的甲基化與腫瘤的大小、階段和轉(zhuǎn)移狀態(tài)顯著相關(guān),這兩個基因也可以在轉(zhuǎn)移性結(jié)腸直腸癌患者中作為預后標記.

        3.2 乳腺癌乳腺癌在發(fā)達地區(qū)和發(fā)展中地區(qū)的女性中都是最為常見的癌癥.許多研究使用了候選基因測試來分析乳腺癌中生物標記基因的甲基化狀態(tài),并評估可能的臨床價值.這意味著大多數(shù)標記都是研究較多的基因,比如細胞周期蛋白D2、RARβ2[55]、ESR1[56]等.Dulaimi等[57]發(fā)現(xiàn)在94%的乳腺癌患者血清樣本里,APC、RASSFIA或DAP?激酶中至少有一個存在超甲基化.來自全印度醫(yī)學科學研究所的研究人員也對100例侵入性導管乳腺癌患者進行了一系列前瞻性研究.他們測試了MDR1、Stratifin、ERα和PR,以及DNA修復基因BRCA1、MGMT和GSTP1的甲基化狀態(tài).以上基因啟動子的甲基化狀態(tài)可以顯著區(qū)分腫瘤組織和對照血清.然而這些基因的敏感度并不高(MDR1 50%,Stratifin 56%,ERα 55%,PRB 55%,BCRA1 22%,MGMT 26%,GSTP1 22%)[58-60].

        3.3 肺癌肺癌是癌癥相關(guān)死亡的主要原因,部分原因是缺乏早期檢測方法[61].DNA甲基化的變化可能發(fā)生在其早期階段.DNA甲基化檢測預計將是肺癌早期診斷中的一種重要方法.目前已知有超過80個與肺癌相關(guān)的高甲基化基因,比如APC[62-63]、RARb[64-65]、RASSF1A[66]、CDH13[62-65]、SHOX2[67]、SHP?1[68].除早期診斷外,部分研究側(cè)重于甲基化狀態(tài)與患者存活的相關(guān)性,并證實CHFR甲基化狀態(tài)與366例患者中179例的二線化療或EGFR TKIs的結(jié)果相關(guān)[69].

        總而言之,ctDNA的甲基化檢驗是一項很有希望的診斷或監(jiān)測腫瘤的方法.目前由于不具備足夠特異度和靈敏度的單一生物標記,故可以使用同時檢測多個基因的測試方法.

        4 ctDNA的檢測方法

        4.1 ctDNA基因突變的檢測方法ctDNA在外周血中總細胞游離DNA所占比例較?。ㄓ袝r<0.01%)[2].最初,研究人員使用Sanger測序來檢測血漿ctDNA.然而,基于Sanger測序的ctDNA檢測存在許多缺點,例如低通量、步驟繁復、高成本和PCR方法引入的潛在偏差[4].基因芯片(microarray)的方法無法進行準確定量,信噪比低,因此在ctDNA的檢測上也有較大缺點.在過去十年中,二代測序(next generation sequencing,NGS)技術(shù)的進步使研究人員能夠開發(fā)出許多有效和方便的Sanger測序替代方法.Diehl等[9]開發(fā)了一種稱為BEAMing的技術(shù)來檢測血液中的ctDNA.該技術(shù)使用含有已知標簽序列的引物擴增目標DNA片段,使其與磁珠共價結(jié)合.含有突變的珠子最終被流式細胞術(shù)分選.Newman等開發(fā)了另一種新技術(shù),稱為CAPP?Seq的(cancer personalized profiling by deep sequencing),即通過深度測序的癌癥個性化分析來定量ctDNA.他們使用針對相關(guān)癌癥中復發(fā)突變區(qū)的生物素化DNA寡核苷酸組成探針組,在100%的Ⅱ~Ⅳ期和50%的Ⅰ期NSCLC患者中檢測到ctDNA,其中對于低至0.02%等位基因頻率的突變的特異度為96%[4].近年來,數(shù)字PCR(digital PCR)技術(shù)的成熟可以使ctDNA檢測靈敏度達到0.01%或更低.與之前的方法相比,這些新技術(shù)顯著提高了ctDNA檢測的靈敏度,并且具有高通量和低價格的優(yōu)點.然而,這些新技術(shù)也有局限性.首先,基于NGS的方法僅能為約50%的早期階段患者提供有價值的診斷[2,4],因此其靈敏度需要進一步改善.此外,這些技術(shù)的成本依然相對較高,從而限制了其在臨床實踐中的應用.

        4.2 ctDNA甲基化的檢測方法ctDNA甲基化的檢測方法有很多種,主要分為三個類別.①甲基化含量:高效液相色譜法(high?performance liquid chroma?tography,HPLC)或高效毛細管電泳(high?perform?ance capillary electrophoresis,HPCE).②候選基因:甲基化敏感性限制內(nèi)切酶?PCR/Southern(methyla?tion?sensitive restrictionendonuclease?PCR/Southern,MSRE?PCR/Southern)、亞硫酸氫鹽測序、甲基化特異性PCR(methylation?specific PCR,MS?PCR)、Meth?yLight等.③甲基化模式和甲基化譜:限制性標記基因組掃描(restriction landmark genomic scanning,RLGS)、甲基化間位點擴增(amplification of inter?methylated sites,AIMS)、甲基化CpG島擴增(methyl?ated CpG?island amplification,MCA)等.目前最常見的方法是MS?PCR.

        5 ctDNA在腫瘤診斷、治療和預后中的潛在應用

        ctDNA在腫瘤臨床醫(yī)學中具有多種應用潛力(表1).例如,對于人群的液體活檢檢測是否含有ctDNA及其突變類型,可以早期篩查癌癥,進行早期干預.對于局部性癌癥,ctDNA的突變類型可協(xié)助選擇其治療方法.同時在治療過程中,血液中ctDNA的含量可以監(jiān)測腫瘤負荷和療效.治療后仍可實時檢測ctDNA含量和突變來達到監(jiān)控癌癥復發(fā)和轉(zhuǎn)移的目的.同時針對難治性癌癥,對ctDNA突變型的挖掘可以發(fā)現(xiàn)新的生物標記,從而深度了解抵抗機制,這些新的生物標記也可以用于新型靶向藥物的研發(fā).下面將舉例說明ctDNA在腫瘤診斷、治療和預后中的潛在應用.

        表1 ctDNA在腫瘤臨床醫(yī)學中的潛在應用

        5.1 監(jiān)測腫瘤負荷和治療反應ctDNA的動力學性質(zhì)諸如ctDNA水平、腫瘤負荷和治療反應之間的關(guān)系已經(jīng)在各種實體惡性腫瘤中被研究過[5,9,70-73].蛋白質(zhì)生物標志物常被用于癌癥診斷和治療應答的評估,例如癌胚抗原(CEA),前列腺特異性抗原(PSA),癌抗原(CA)19?9和CA?125.然而這些蛋白質(zhì)生物標志物的特異性和可靠性并不令人滿意,許多惡性腫瘤甚至沒有任何可靠的蛋白質(zhì)生物標志物[74-75].ctDNA攜帶全面、固有高特異度和高敏感度的信息,因此具有優(yōu)于常規(guī)蛋白質(zhì)生物標志物的獨特優(yōu)勢.關(guān)于黑色素瘤[7,76]、乳腺癌[70]、卵巢癌[77]和結(jié)腸癌[9,78]的研究已經(jīng)確立了ctDNA在治療過程中動態(tài)并精確監(jiān)測腫瘤負荷的潛在應用價值.ctDNA水平隨疾病進展而快速增加,并在成功治療后相應地下降[7,9,70,76-77].ctDNA水平的定量評估也可以作為預后的重要指標.一些初步數(shù)據(jù)支持在晚期癌癥患者的ctDNA水平和預后之間的關(guān)聯(lián)[70-81].

        耐藥性是癌癥患者治療中的主要問題.ctDNA可以有效評估與治療耐藥相關(guān)的突變的出現(xiàn)[43,82-85].KRAS的分子改變與結(jié)腸直腸癌的抗EGFR治療的獲得性耐藥性的起因有關(guān).檢測接受抗EGFR治療的患者的ctDNA中KRAS變體可以在放射學記錄疾病進展之前10個月鑒定復發(fā)[82].此外,通過使用全外顯子組測序,連續(xù)ctDNA分析可以在獲得治療耐藥性的過程中針對基因組的改變提供公正和全面的評估[86].

        ctDNA分析最終可以提供遺傳改變的綜合圖譜,包括突變譜的動態(tài)變化以及癌癥治療過程中的腫瘤異質(zhì)性和進化.這種綜合圖譜可以幫助設(shè)計組合治療以最大程度避免治療抗性.

        5.2 監(jiān)測最小殘留病變ctDNA可被應用在手術(shù)后或治愈性療法之后檢測最小殘留病變.在某些類型的癌癥中,手術(shù)便可治愈大部分患有早期或局部腫瘤的患者.然而,目前尚無有效的方法區(qū)分哪些患者被治愈,哪些患者會出現(xiàn)殘留病變導致的復發(fā).因此,一些通過手術(shù)治愈的患者仍然由于缺乏是否確診復發(fā)的信息而接受不必要的輔助化療.ctDNA是手術(shù)切除后殘留病變的潛在標志物,可以用來鑒定具有復發(fā)風險的患者.研究表明,對于在手術(shù)切除后血漿

        DNA中腫瘤特異性突變的評估可以識別具有殘留病變的個體[3],并檢測疾病復發(fā)[87-88].早期預測復發(fā)將有助于在腫瘤負荷仍最小時引入有效的治療策略.

        6 總結(jié)與展望

        對ctDNA的生物學和臨床應用的最新研究證實,基于ctDNA的液體活檢可以通過基因分型、疾病監(jiān)測、治療評估等途徑改善癌癥診斷和治療.然而,為使該技術(shù)最終可以應用到常規(guī)臨床實踐中,目前仍然存在一些問題與挑戰(zhàn)需要解決.首先,使用ctDNA作為診斷標記物,非常重要的一點是需要更好地理解ctDNA的生物學特性,包括其與腫瘤組織的各個部分、原病灶、轉(zhuǎn)移病灶等基因組成的關(guān)聯(lián)性.此外,盡管ctDNA的臨床相關(guān)性已被驗證,但是將該技術(shù)應用于常規(guī)臨床實踐仍需要進一步證明其分析有效性和臨床有效性,并且建立統(tǒng)一的臨床標準.同時以NGS為基礎(chǔ)的方法往往用時長、成本高,這為其臨床應用帶來了困難.但是隨著測序技術(shù)的進步,測序所需時間會逐漸縮短,成本會進一步降低,因此長遠來看ctDNA的液體活檢成為臨床檢驗標準更多的是時間問題.ctDNA的液體活檢的臨床應用面臨的另外一個困難是檢測方法的敏感度有限,尤其面臨癌癥早篩和檢測殘留病變時.現(xiàn)階段以NGS為基礎(chǔ)的方法的敏感度受限于DNA聚合酶的擴增錯誤率,普遍認為為0.01%.隨著三代測序技術(shù)的出現(xiàn),ctDNA的檢測不再受限于DNA聚合酶的擴增.總之,隨著測序技術(shù)的快速發(fā)展和對ctDNA生物學及其臨床潛力的理解加深,ctDNA終將會在臨床實踐中得到廣泛應用.

        [1]Gerlinger M,Rowan AJ,Horswell S,et al.Intratumor heterogeneity and branched evolution revealed by multiregion sequencing[J].N Engl J Med,2012,366(10):883-892.

        [2]Yong E.Cancer biomarkers:Written in blood[J].Nature,2014,511(7511):524-526.

        [3]Sorenson GD,Pribish DM,Valone FH,et al.Soluble normal and mutated Dna-sequences from single?copy genes in human blood[J].Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev,1994,3(1):67-71.

        [4]Newman AM,Bratman SV,To J,et al.An ultrasensitive method for quantitating circulating tumor DNA with broad patient coverage[J].Nat Med,2014,20(5):548-554.

        [5]Diaz LA Jr,Bardelli A.Liquid biopsies:genotyping circulating tumor DNA[J].J Clin Oncol,2014,32(6):579-586.

        [6]Romero D.Breast cancer:Tracking ctDNA to evaluate relapse risk[J].Nat Rev Clin Oncol,2015,12(11):624.

        [7]Bidard FC,Madic J,Mariani P,et al.Detection rate and prognostic value of circulating tumor cells and circulating tumor DNA in meta?static uveal melanoma[J].Int J Cancer,2014,134(5):1207-1213.

        [8]Martignetti JA,Camacho?Vanegas O,Priedigkeit N,et al.Personal?ized ovarian cancer disease surveillance and detection of candidate therapeutic drug target in circulating tumor DNA[J].Neoplasia,2014,16(1):97-103.

        [9]Diehl F,Schmidt K,Choti MA,et al.Circulating mutant DNA to assess tumor dynamics[J].Nat Med,2008,14(9):985-990.

        [10]Chan KC,Jiang P,Zheng YW,et al.Cancer genome scanning in plasma:detection of tumor?associated copy number aberrations,single?nucleotide variants,and tumoral heterogeneity by massively parallel sequencing[J].Clin Chem,2013,59(1):211-224.

        [11]Yung TK,Chan KC,Mok TS,et al.Single?molecule detection of epidermal growth factor receptor mutations in plasma by microfluidics digital PCR in non?small cell lung cancer patients[J].Clin Cancer Res,2009,15(6):2076-2084.

        [12]Diehl F,Li M,Dressman D,et al.Detection and quantification of mutations in the plasma of patients with colorectal tumors[J].Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,2005,102(45):16368-16373.

        [13]Qiu M,Wang J,Xu Y,et al.Circulating tumor DNA is effective for the detection of EGFR mutation in non?small cell lung cancer:a meta?analysis[J].Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev,2015,24(1):206-212.

        [14]Freidin MB,F(xiàn)reydina DV,Leung M,et al.Circulating tumor DNA outperforms circulating tumor cells for KRAS mutation detection in thoracic malignancies[J].Clin Chem,2015,61(10):1299-1304.

        [15]Wong IH,Lo YM,Zhang J,et al.Detection of aberrant p16 methyl?ation in the plasma and serum of liver cancer patients[J].Cancer Res,1999,59(1):71-73.

        [16]Chan KC,Lai PB,Mok TS,et al.Quantitative analysis of circulating methylated DNA as a biomarker for hepatocellular carcinoma[J].Clin Chem,2008,54(9):1528-1536.

        [17]Balgkouranidou I,Chimonidou M,Milaki G,et al.Breast cancer metastasis suppressor?1 promoter methylation in cell?free DNA pro?vides prognostic information in non?small cell lung cancer[J].Br J Cancer,2014,110(8):2054-2062.

        [18]Chan KC,Jiang P,Chan CW,et al.Noninvasive detection of canc?er?associated genome?wide hypomethylation and copy number aberra?tions by plasma DNA bisulfite sequencing[J].Proc Natl Acad Sci,2013,110(47):18761-18768.

        [19]Lo YM,Chan LY,Lo KW,et al.Quantitative analysis of cell?freeEpstein?Barr virus DNA in plasma of patients with nasopharyngeal carcinoma[J].Cancer Res,1999,59(6):1188-1191.

        [20]Chan KC,Hung EC,Woo JK,et al.Early detection of nasopharyn?geal carcinoma by plasma Epstein?Barr virus DNA analysis in a surveillance program[J].Cancer,2013,119(10):1838-1844.

        [21]Campitelli M,Jeannot E,Peter M,et al.Human papillomavirus mutational insertion:Specific marker of circulating tumor DNA in cervical cancer patients[J].PLoS One,2012,7(8):e43393.

        [22]Mouliere F,Rosenfeld N.Circulating tumor?derived DNA is shorter than somatic DNA in plasma[J].Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A,2015,112(11):3178-3179.

        [23]Anker P,Mulcahy H,Chen XQ,et al.Detection of circulating tumour DNA in the blood(plasma/serum)of cancer patients[J].Cancer Metastasis Rev,1999,18(1):65-73.

        [24]Stroun M,Lyautey J,Lederrey C,et al.About the possible origin and mechanism of circulating DNA[J].Clin Chim Acta,2001,313(1-2):139-142.

        [25]van der Vaart M,Pretorius PJ.The origin of circulating free DNA[J].Clin Chem,2007,53(12):2215.

        [26]Marzese DM,Hirose H,Hoon DS.Diagnostic and prognostic value of circulating tumor?related DNA in cancer patients[J].Expert Rev Mol Diagn,2013,13(8):827-844.

        [27]Jiao L,Zhu J,Hassan MM,et al.K?ras mutation and p16 and preproenkephalin promoter hypermethylation in plasma DNA of pancreatic cancer patients:in relation to cigarette smoking[J].Pancreas,2007,34(1):55-62.

        [28]Liggett T,Melnikov A,Yi QL,et al.Differential methylation of cell?free circulating DNA among patients with pancreatic cancer versus chronic pancreatitis[J].Cancer,2010,116(7):1674-1680.

        [29]Soda M,Choi YL,Enomoto M,et al.Identification of the transfor?ming EML4?ALK fusion gene in non?small?cell lung cancer[J].Nature,2007,448(7153):561-566.

        [30]Santos E,Martin?Zanca D,Reddy EP,et al.Malignant activation of a K?ras oncogene in lung carcinoma but not in normal tissue of the same patient[J].Science,1984,223(4637):661-664.

        [31]Davies H,Bignell GR,Cox C,et al.Mutations of the BRAF gene in human cancer[J].Nature,2002,417(6892):949-954.

        [32]Paez JG,J?nne PA,Lee JC,et al.EGFR mutations in lung cancer:correlation with clinical response to gefitinib therapy[J].Science,2004,304(5676):1497-1500.

        [33]Takeuchi K,Soda M,Togashi Y,et al.RET,ROS1 and ALK fusions in lung cancer[J].Nat Med,2012,18(3):378-381.

        [34]Kohno T,Ichikawa H,Totoki Y,et al.KIF5B?RET fusions in lung adenocarcinoma[J].Nat Med,2012,18(3):375-377.

        [35]Wang S,An T,Wang J,et al.Potential clinical significance of a plasma?based KRAS mutation analysis in patients with advanced non?small cell lung cancer[J].Clin Cancer Res,2010,16(4):1324-1330.

        [36]Oxnard GR,Arcila ME,Sima CS,et al.Acquired resistance to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors in EGFR?mutant lung cancer:distinct natu?ral history of patients with tumors harboring the T790M mutation[J].Clin Cancer Res,2011,17(6):1616-1622.

        [37]Taniguchi K,Uchida J,Nishino K,et al.Quantitative detection of EGFR mutations in circulating tumor DNA derived from lung adeno?carcinomas[J].Clin Cancer Res,2011,17(24):7808-7815.

        [38]Hsieh JS,Lin SR,Chang MY,et al.APC,K?ras,and p53 gene mutations in colorectal cancer patients:correlation to clinicopathologic features and postoperative surveillance[J].Am Surg,2005,71(4):336-343.

        [39]Lecomte T,Ceze N,Dorval E,et al.Circulating free tumor DNA and colorectal cancer[J].Gastroenterol Clin Biol,2010,34(12):662-681.

        [40]Kopreski MS,Benko FA,Borys DJ,et al.Somatic mutation screen?ing:identification of individuals harboring K?ras mutations with the use of plasma DNA[J].J Natl Cancer Inst,2000,92(11):918-923.

        [41]Lecomte T,Berger A,Zinzindohoué F,et al.Detection of free?circu?lating tumor?associated DNA in plasma of colorectal cancer patients and its association with prognosis[J].Int J Cancer,2002,100(5):542-548.

        [42]Bazan V,Bruno L,Augello C,et al.Molecular detection of TP53,Ki?Ras and p16INK4A promoter methylation in plasma of patients with colorectal cancer and its association with prognosis.Results of a 3?year GOIM(Gruppo Oncologico dell’Italia Meridionale)prospec?tive study[J].Ann Oncol,2006,17(Suppl 7):vii84-90.

        [43]Diaz LA Jr,Williams RT,Wu J,et al.The molecular evolution of acquired resistance to targeted EGFR blockade in colorectal cancers[J].Nature,2012;486(7404)::537-540.

        [44]Wang JY,Hsieh JS,Chang MY,et al.Molecular detection of APC,K?ras,and p53 mutations in the serum of colorectal cancer patients as circulating biomarkers[J].World J Surg,2004,28(7):721-726.

        [45]Gold B,Cankovic M,F(xiàn)urtado LV,et al.Do circulating tumor cells,exosomes,and circulating tumor nucleic acids have clinical utility?:A report of the association for molecular pathology[J].J Mol Diag?nostics,2015,17(3):209-224.

        [46]Herman JG,Baylin SB.Gene silencing in cancer in association with promoter hypermethylation[J].N Engl J Med,2003,349(21):2042-2054.

        [47]Siegel R,Ma J,Zou Z,et al.Cancer statistics,2014[J].CA Cancer J Clin,2014,64(1):9-29.

        [48]Tóth K,Galamb O,Spisák S,et al.The influence of methylated septin 9 gene on RNA and protein level in colorectal cancer[J].Pathol Oncol Res,2011,17(3):503-509.

        [49]Grützmann R,Molnar B,Pilarsky C,et al.Sensitive detection of colorectal cancer in peripheral blood by septin 9 DNA methylation assay[J].PLoS One,2008,3(11):e3759.

        [50]DeVos T,Tetzner R,Model F,et al.Circulating methylated SEPT9 DNA in plasma is a biomarker for colorectal cancer[J].Clin Chem,2009,55(7):1337-1346.

        [51]Warren JD,Xiong W,Bunker AM,et al.Septin 9 methylated DNA is a sensitive and specific blood test for colorectal cancer[J].BMC Med,2011,9:133.

        [52]Cassinotti E,Melson J,Liggett T,et al.DNA methylation patterns in blood of patients with colorectal cancer and adenomatous colorectal polyps[J].Int J Cancer,2012,131(5):1153-1157.

        [53]Pack SC,Kim HR,Lim SW,et al.Usefulness of plasma epigenetic changes of five major genes involved in the pathogenesis of colorectal cancer[J].Int J Colorectal Dis,2013,28(1):139-147.

        [54]Philipp AB,Stieber P,Nagel D,et al.Prognostic role of methylated free circulating DNA in colorectal cancer[J].Int J Cancer,2012,131(10):2308-2319.

        [55]Liggett TE,Melnikov AA,Marks JR,et al.Methylation patterns in cell?free plasma DNA reflect removal of the primary tumor and drug treatment of breast cancer patients[J].Int J Cancer,2011,128(2):492-499.

        [56]Martínez?Galán J,Torres?Torres B,Nú?ez MI,et al.ESR1 gene promoter region methylation in free circulating DNA and its correla?tion with estrogen receptor protein expression in tumor tissue in breast cancer patients[J].BMC Cancer,2014,14:59.

        [57]Dulaimi E,Hillinck J,Ibanez de Caceres I,et al.Tumor suppressor gene promoter hypermethylation in serum of breast cancer patients[J].Clin Cancer Res,2004,1010(18 Pt 1):6189-6193.

        [58]Sharma G,Mirza S,Parshad R,et al.CpG hypomethylation of MDR1 gene in tumor and serum of invasive ductal breast carcinoma patients[J].Clin Biochem,2010,43(4-5):373-379.

        [59]Mirza S,Sharma G,Parshad R,et al.Clinical significance of Strati?fin,ERalpha and PR promoter methylation in tumor and serum DNA in Indian breast cancer patients[J].Clin Biochem,2010,43(4-5):380-386.

        [60]Sharma G,Mirza S,Parshad R,et al.Clinical significance of pro?moter hypermethylation of DNA repair genes in tumor and serum DNA in invasive ductal breast carcinoma patients[J].Life Sci,2010,87(3-4):83-91.

        [61]Knoepp UW,Ravenel JG.CT and PET imaging in non?small cell lung cancer[J].Crit Rev Oncol Hematol,2006,58(1):15-30.

        [62]Zhang Y,Wang R,Song H,et al.Methylation of multiple genes as a candidate biomarker in non?small cell lung cancer[J].Cancer Lett,2011,303(1):21-28.

        [63]Usadel H,Brabender J,Danenberg KD,et al.Quantitative adenom?atous polyposis coli promoter methylation analysis in tumor tissue,serum,and plasma DNA of patients with lung cancer[J].Cancer Res,2002,62(2):371-375.

        [64]Wang YC,Hsu HS,Chen TP,et al.Molecular diagnostic markers for lung cancer in sputum and plasma[J].Ann N Y Acad Sci,2006,1075:179-184.

        [65]Rykova EY,Skvortsova TE,Laktionov PP,et al.Investigation of tumor?derived extracellular DNA in blood of cancer patients by methylation?specific PCR[J].Nucleosides Nucleotides Nucleic Acids,2004,23(6-7):855-859.

        [66]Ponomaryova AA,Rykova EY,Cherdyntseva NV,et al.Potentiali?ties of aberrantly methylated circulating DNA for diagnostics and post?treatment follow?up of lung cancer patients[J].Lung Cancer,2013,81(3):397-403.

        [67]Kneip C,Schmidt B,Seegebarth A,et al.SHOX2 DNA methylation is a biomarker for the diagnosis of lung cancer in plasma[J].J Thorac Oncol,2011,6(10):1632-1638.

        [68]Vinayanuwattikun C,Sriuranpong V,Tanasanvimon S,et al.Epithelial?specific methylation marker:a potential plasma biomarker in advanced non?small cell lung cancer[J].J Thorac Oncol,2011,6(11):1818-1825.

        [69]Salazar F,Molina MA,Sanchez?Ronco M,et al.First?line therapy and methylation status of CHFR in serum influence outcome to chemo?therapy versus EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors as second?line therapy in stage IV non?small?cell lung cancer patients[J].Lung Cancer,2011,72(1):84-91.

        [70]Dawson SJ,Tsui DW,Murtaza M,et al.Analysis of circulating tumor DNA to monitor metastatic breast cancer[J].N Engl J Med,2013,368(13):1199-1209.

        [71]McBride DJ,Orpana AK,Sotiriou C,et al.Use of cancer?specific genomic rearrangements to quantify disease burden in plasma from patients with solid tumors[J].Genes Chromosomes Cancer,2010,49(11):1062-1069.

        [72]Leary RJ,Kinde I,Diehl F,et al.Development of personalized tumor biomarkers using massively parallel sequencing[J].Sci Transl Med,2010,2(20):20ra14.

        [73]Lipson EJ,Velculescu VE,Pritchard TS,et al.Circulating tumor DNA analysis as a real?time method for monitoring tumor burden in melanoma patients undergoing treatment with immune checkpoint blockade[J].J Immunother Cancer,2014,2(1):42-48.

        [74]Yoshimasu T,Maebeya S,Suzuma T,et al.Disappearance curves for tumor markers after resection of intrathoracic malignancies[J].Int J Biol Markers,1999,14(2):99-105.

        [75]Ito K,Hibi K,Ando H,et al.Usefulness of analytical CEA doubling time and half?life time for overlooked synchronous metastases in colo?rectal carcinoma[J].Jpn J Clin Oncol,2002,32(2):54-58.

        [76]Shinozaki M,O'Day SJ,Kitago M,et al.Utility of circulating B?RAF DNA mutation in serum for monitoring melanoma patients receiving biochemotherapy[J].Clin Cancer Res,2007,13(7):2068-2074.

        [77]Forshew T,Murtaza M,Parkinson C,et al.Noninvasive identifica?tion and monitoring of cancer mutations by targeted deep sequencing of plasma DNA[J].Sci Transl Med,2012,4(136):136ra68.

        [78]Tie J,Kinde I,Wang Y,et al.Circulating tumor DNA as an early marker of therapeutic response in patients with metastatic colorectal cancer[J].Ann Oncol,2015,26(8):1715-1722.

        [79]Pathak AK,Bhutani M,Kumar S,et al.Circulating cell?free DNA in plasma/serum of lung cancer patients as a potential screening and prognostic tool[J].Clin Chem,2006,52(10):1833-1842.

        [80]Nygaard AD,Garm Spindler KL,Pallisgaard N,et al.The prognostic value of KRAS mutated plasma DNA in advanced non?small cell lung cancer[J].Lung Cancer,2013,79(3):312-317.

        [81]Olsson E,Winter C,George A,et al.Serial monitoring of circulating tumor DNA in patients with primary breast cancer for detection of occult metastatic disease[J].EMBO Mol Med,2015,7(8):1034-1047.

        [82]Misale S,Yaeger R,Hobor S,et al.Emergence of KRAS mutations and acquired resistance to anti EGFR therapy in colorectal cancer[J].Nature,2014,486(7404):532-536.

        [83]Misale S,Arena S,Lamba S,et al.Blockade of EGFR and MEK intercepts heterogeneousmechanismsofacquiredresistanceto anti?EGFR therapies in colorectal cancer[J].Sci Transl Med,2014,6(224):224ra26.

        [84]Bardelli A,Corso S,Bertotti A,et al.Amplification of the MET receptor drives resistance to anti?EGFR therapies in colorectal cancer[J].Cancer Discov,2013,3(6):658-673.

        [85]De Mattos?Arruda L,Cortes J,Santarpia L,et al.Circulating tumour cells and cell?free DNA as tools for managing breast cancer[J].Nat Rev Clin Oncol,2013,10(7):377-389.

        [86]Murtaza M,Dawson SJ,Tsui DW,et al.Non?invasive analysis of acquired resistance to cancer therapy by sequencing of plasma DNA[J].Nature,2013,497(7447):108-112.

        [87]Nawroz H,Koch W,Anker P,et al.Microsatellite alterations in serum DNA of head and neck cancer patients[J].Nat Med,1996,2(9):1035-1037.

        [88]Gang F,Guorong L,An Z,et al.Prediction of clear cell renal cell carcinoma by integrity of cell?free DNA in serum[J].Urology,2010,75(2):262-265.

        Circulating tumor DNA and its application in liquid biopsy of cancer

        LI Jun1,LI Tai?Bo2

        1Department of Genetics,Harvard Medical School,Boston MA 02115,USA;2Broad Institute,Cambridge MA 02142,USA

        Tissue biopsy and genotyping are standard diagnostic procedures for categorizing tumors for clinical decisions at present.However,tumor tissues are often difficult to obtain and only provide a snapshot.Tumor heterogeneity is a significant cause of failures of cancer therapeutics,even molecularly targeted thera?pies.Noninvasive liquid biopsy from blood has been attempted to characterize tumor heterogeneity.Cell?free circulating tumor DNA(ctDNA)in the bloodstream is a versatile biomarker with good potential to genotype the entire tumor.This review focuses on the following aspects of ctDNA:the biology of ctDNA;tumor?specific ctDNA mutations;the epigenetic alterations of ctDNA;ctDNA detection methods;the potential application of ctDNA in the diag?nosis,treatment and prognosis of tumor.

        circulating tumor DNA;liquid biopsy;diagnosis,treatment and prognosis

        R740.43

        A

        2095?6894(2017)03?01?06

        2016-12-14;接受日期:2016-12-30

        李 君.博士,哈佛大學醫(yī)學院博士后研究員.研究方向:循環(huán)腫瘤DNA、液體活檢.E?mail:Jun_Li2@hms.harvard.edu

        猜你喜歡
        基因突變甲基化結(jié)腸
        大狗,小狗——基因突變解釋體型大小
        英語世界(2023年6期)2023-06-30 06:29:10
        微小RNA在先天性巨結(jié)腸中的研究進展
        管家基因突變導致面部特異性出生缺陷的原因
        提壺揭蓋法論治熱結(jié)腸腑所致咳嗽
        基因突變的“新物種”
        鼻咽癌組織中SYK基因啟動子區(qū)的甲基化分析
        經(jīng)肛門結(jié)腸拖出術(shù)治療先天性巨結(jié)腸護理體會
        “瀉劑結(jié)腸”的研究進展
        胃癌DNA甲基化研究進展
        基因組DNA甲基化及組蛋白甲基化
        遺傳(2014年3期)2014-02-28 20:58:49
        成人特黄a级毛片免费视频| 国产一级一厂片内射视频播放 | 久久伊人中文字幕有码久久国产| 日本一区二区三区区视频| 99久热在线精品视频观看| 四房播播在线电影| 九九99久久精品午夜剧场免费| 久久人妻精品免费二区| 极品少妇xxxx精品少妇偷拍| 亚洲精品无码乱码成人| 亚洲欧洲日产国码久在线观看| 国内国外日产一区二区| 青春草在线视频观看| 国产高颜值大学生情侣酒店| 国产九色AV刺激露脸对白| 国产精品黄色av网站| 亚洲最新无码中文字幕久久| 亚洲欧美日韩人成在线播放| 欧美日韩中文亚洲另类春色| 免费女女同黄毛片av网站| 国产成人av一区二区三区在线观看 | 免费看又色又爽又黄的国产软件| 国产a v无码专区亚洲av| 精品国产爱在线观看| 熟妇人妻精品一区二区视频免费的| 午夜男女很黄的视频| 又爽又黄禁片视频1000免费| 少妇爽到爆视频网站免费| 亚洲男人av天堂久久资源| 伊人久久久精品区aaa片| 久久久久久久妓女精品免费影院 | 少妇被猛烈进入中文字幕| 国产美女爽到喷出水来视频| 99久久国语露脸精品国产| 蜜桃成人永久免费av大| 开心久久综合婷婷九月| 亚洲av无码一区二区三区不卡| 一本久到久久亚洲综合| 在线看高清中文字幕一区| 97se亚洲国产综合在线| 99精品电影一区二区免费看|