朱 琳(綜述) 向 平(審校)
(司法部司法鑒定科學技術研究所法醫(yī)毒物化學研究室-上海市法醫(yī)學重點實驗室 上海 200063)
生物樣品中抗凝血類殺鼠劑分析研究進展
朱 琳(綜述) 向 平△(審校)
(司法部司法鑒定科學技術研究所法醫(yī)毒物化學研究室-上海市法醫(yī)學重點實驗室 上海 200063)
在我國,抗凝血類殺鼠劑中毒頻繁發(fā)生,易被誤診。檢測生物樣品中抗凝血類殺鼠劑對臨床診斷、治療和法醫(yī)學調查有重要意義。本文綜述了近年文獻報道的生物樣品中抗凝血類殺鼠劑的分析方法,著重比較各種生物樣品選擇、樣品前處理、分離檢測技術,并結合本課題組的應用案例給出血液、頭發(fā)分析的結果參考。血液適用于抗凝血類殺鼠劑分析,其主要前處理方法有液-液提取、蛋白質沉淀等。頭發(fā)可作為血液樣品的重要補充,用于攝藥歷史的法醫(yī)學調查。液相色譜-質譜(liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry,LC-MS)檢測法兼顧靈敏度與選擇性,是目前最常用的分析生物樣品中抗凝血類殺鼠劑的技術。
抗凝血; 殺鼠劑; 中毒; 生物樣品; 分析方法
隨著急性劇毒殺鼠劑(如:毒鼠強)的禁用,抗凝血類殺鼠劑被廣泛使用。人類抗凝血類殺鼠劑中毒在世界范圍內屢有報道,最多見的攝入原因包括誤食[1-3]、自行服毒[4]、甚至藥物濫用者為達到更長欣快感而服用[2,5-6]。在美國,自2009—2013年發(fā)生抗凝血類殺鼠劑的接觸報告共49702例[7-11]??鼓悮⑹髣θ艘酝獾姆悄繕藙游铮倚?、寵物及野生動物哺乳動物、猛禽等)具有中毒和二次中毒威脅[12-16],在動物保護領域引起了重視。
在中國,抗凝血類殺鼠劑中毒頻繁發(fā)生[17-23],甚至可能是公共安全事件,如2009年5月浙江樂清176人誤食溴敵隆污染的炒飯中毒[24],2010—2011年福建某鄉(xiāng)鎮(zhèn)陸續(xù)出現不明原因的疑似大隆投毒[25]等。
抗凝血類殺鼠劑競爭性抑制肝臟中維生素K的轉化,致凝血功能受損,其潛伏期為1~11天,中毒癥狀易與其他出血疾病混淆;加上服毒者隱瞞,或自認與癥狀無關而未提及服毒史,易導致誤診[20-21,26]。目前臨床實踐中多通過凝血參數提示診斷,但無法確診。而檢測生物樣品中抗凝血類殺鼠劑,能直接為診斷和治療[2]提供依據,也有助法醫(yī)學專家調查案情[17]。
生物樣品中的抗凝血類殺鼠劑含量多為ng/g級別,而薄層色譜[27]、液相色譜[28]、氣相色譜[15]、氣相色譜-質譜[29]檢測法的靈敏度和專屬性有限[30],曾是分析工作難點。近年來隨著液相色譜-質譜檢測技術的成熟,生物樣品中的抗凝血類殺鼠劑檢測方法得以進一步發(fā)展。
已有研究者綜述了抗凝血類殺鼠劑分析研究進展[17,30-32],但尚缺對生物樣品分析的重點討論[32]。本文將簡介抗凝血類殺鼠劑,綜述近年來報道的分析方法,討論生物樣品選擇、前處理、分析檢測方法,并結合本實驗室的案例應用,討論人血液和頭發(fā)的相關分析結果,供臨床及法醫(yī)毒物工作者參考。
抗凝血類殺鼠劑簡介第1代抗凝血類殺鼠劑主要是華法林(warfarin,又名殺鼠靈)和殺鼠醚(coumatetralyl)。隨著耐藥鼠種群產生,開發(fā)出藥效更強、作用更持久的第2代抗凝血類殺鼠劑(second generation anticoagulant rodenticides,SGARs),又被稱為“超級華法林(superwarfarins)”、“長效殺鼠劑(long-acting rodenticides)”[1],包括4-羥基香豆素類的溴敵?。╞romadiolone,又名“樂萬通”)、大?。╞rodifacoum,又名“溴鼠靈”、“溴鼠隆”)、殺它仗(flocoumafen)等,以及茚滿二酮類的敵鼠(diphacinone)、氯鼠(chlorophacinone)、殺鼠酮(valone)等。目前中國農業(yè)部登記的抗凝血類殺鼠劑有溴敵隆、大隆、敵鼠鈉鹽、氟鼠靈、殺鼠靈、殺鼠醚[33]。文獻[34]及本課題組的案例顯示,我國最常引起中毒的抗凝血類殺鼠劑是溴敵隆與大隆。
抗凝血類殺鼠劑吸收途徑包括口服、呼吸道[2,5-6]、皮膚和黏膜[35-41]吸收??鼓悮⑹髣┏T诟闻K蓄積[42-43]。大鼠肝臟與血清中大隆濃度比值超過20[44]。華法林主要經肝臟的細胞色素P450羥基化代謝后,從尿液排泄。而第2代抗凝血類殺鼠劑溴敵?。?5]、大隆[44]和殺它仗[43]主要以原形從糞便排泄。
表1列舉了一些中毒報道的血藥濃度和消除半衰期。第2代抗凝血類殺鼠劑的生物半衰期可長至幾天至幾十天,大多顯示兩種消除時相的動力學[42,46]。亦有研究顯示大隆為零級消除(取樣時間至攝入后40天),但不排除到了低濃度時轉為一級消除[47]。
目前治療包括輸注維生素K、凝血酶原復合物,重癥時給予新鮮冷凍血漿或血液灌流等[2,48]。鑒于第2代抗凝血類殺鼠劑消除緩慢,且半衰期個體差異大(表1),在治療過程中應測定患者血液中化合物濃度,設計給藥方案,有利于合理治療[46-47,49]。根據Lo等[46]的一個中毒案例,血液溴敵隆濃度降至10 ng/m L后,患者凝血功能恢復正常。而對于大隆,有研究者認為治療終點可定在血清大隆濃度降至10 ng/m L[47,50]。
抗凝血類殺鼠劑分析使用的生物樣品及前處理方法
血液 血液能直接反應循環(huán)系統(tǒng)中毒物濃度。抗凝血類殺鼠劑的水溶性普遍較差,易溶于有機溶劑。由于抗凝血類殺鼠劑呈弱酸性,液-液提取(liquid-liquid extraction,LLE)時可以考慮將水相調整為弱酸性[57]。
處理血漿可丙酮提取后乙醚沉淀蛋白質[58]或直接乙腈沉淀蛋白質[59]。有方法[45,60]使用了Toxi-B管(一種液-液提取裝置,有機相包括30%~40%的二氯甲烷,10%~20%的庚烷,30%~40%的氯化鋅)。
全血前處理常采用乙酸乙酯LLE,使用溶劑量
為2~8 m L[28,56,61-62]。Guan等[28]對比了乙酸乙酯、氯仿、乙醚和C18小柱對全血中5種抗凝血類殺鼠劑的回收率,乙酸乙酯的回收率最高。
表1 一些人類抗凝血類殺鼠劑中毒者的血液測量結果和半衰期Tab 1 Some anticoagulant rodenticide levels in human poisoning cases and the corresponding half-lives
血清的處理通常包括沉淀蛋白質和乙酸乙酯提取兩個步驟[57]。
肝臟 第2代凝血類殺鼠劑在肝臟蓄積,因此肝臟常用于相關毒物動力學研究。最常用固相萃取法(solid phase extraction,SPE),且預先用乙腈[63]、丙酮[64]、或丙酮與二氯甲烷的混合物等[65]液-液提取。優(yōu)點是樣品凈化充分,缺點是耗時較長。
Clelland[66]使用一次性吸管萃?。╠isposable pipette extraction,DPX)處理了肝臟樣品,其原理同固相萃取,但無需活化和抽真空洗脫步驟,時間短;且每個樣品使用的有機溶劑不超過1 m L,較傳統(tǒng)固相萃取減少。
Vudathala等[67]開發(fā)了一個Qu ECh ERS (Quick、Easy、Cheap、Effective、Rugged、Safe,基于分散固相萃取原理)方法。與傳統(tǒng)SPE對比,此方法便捷且節(jié)省溶劑,且可達到滿意效果。
Hernández等[68]分析普通田鼠的肝臟、腸、肉時,將凍干的樣品均一化后用甲醇(6 m L)提取。
毛發(fā) 抗凝血類殺鼠劑由于攝入隱蔽等原因,暴露來源往往難以明確[1],而頭發(fā)檢測時限長,根據頭發(fā)生長速度約1 cm/月,通過分段分析,可大致推測某些外源化合物的攝入歷史,并已在法醫(yī)學等領域得以應用[10-11],頭發(fā)還具有采樣無侵犯性、易保存等優(yōu)點。
目前報道的頭發(fā)分析方法中,R?hrich等[69]將頭發(fā)用甲醇超聲提取(50℃,4 h),再用氯仿、丙酮提取,但未在實際應用中檢出抗凝血類殺鼠劑。本文作者等[70]將頭發(fā)冷凍研磨,加p H 6.8磷酸緩沖液超聲后乙酸乙酯液-液提取,此法應用于實際中毒者的頭發(fā)分段分析,檢出了溴敵隆或大隆。
其他生物樣品 死亡案件的法醫(yī)毒物分析中,除了血液、肝、腎等,有報道膽汁檢出抗凝血類殺鼠劑[71],肝臟的甲醛保存液也可檢出[71]。
在野生動物的抗凝血類殺鼠劑暴露監(jiān)測中,動物尸體檢查常用肝臟[58]。采樣無侵犯性的生物樣品則有糞便[45]以及猛禽食團[14]。毛發(fā)分析或將給野生動物的保護性監(jiān)測提供了新選擇[70]。
雖然已建立以尿液為樣品的方法[59,72-73],但極少從尿液檢出抗凝血類殺鼠劑的報道。如某女,因出血入院20天后,血液中檢出大?。?22 ng/m L),尿液無檢出[62]。有報道一危重患者的尿液(血尿)中檢出溴敵隆為73 ng/m L,同時其血液中溴敵隆為1 150 ng/m L[48],很可能源于尿液混雜的血液。如前述,溴敵隆、大隆、殺它仗主要隨糞便排出,尿液排泄很少[43-45];即使對通過經尿液排出的化合物,如敵鼠,檢測時距攝入已久,其排泄速率已變慢[74],因此尿液不是抗凝血類殺鼠劑分析的理想樣品。
分析方法
液相色譜-紫外檢測和液相色譜-熒光檢測法
抗凝血類殺鼠劑不易揮發(fā),應用氣相色譜法時需衍生化,且靈敏度有限[30],如Sato等[29]開發(fā)的氣相色譜-質譜(GC-MS)法,檢測限為10~30 ng/m L。而液相色譜法不需要衍生化步驟。高效液相色譜的分離,多為以C18為固定相的反向色譜。就靈敏度而言,熒光檢測器(FLD)檢測限可達小于10 ng/m L[57,65,75],優(yōu)于紫外(UV)通常在20~75 ng/m L范圍的檢測限[28,76-77]。
液相色譜-質譜檢測和液相色譜-串聯(lián)質譜檢測法 相較紫外和熒光檢測器,質譜有極佳的靈敏度和選擇性。Hernández等[68]測量4種抗凝血類殺鼠劑,用UV或FLD,檢出限是9~89 ng/g,而用質譜檢出限為0.6~1.5 ng/g。液相色譜-質譜(LC-MS)是近年新開發(fā)方法中的主流,其主要缺點是價格較高。
電噴霧電離(electrospray ionization,ESI)是目前檢測生物樣品中抗凝血類殺鼠劑最常用的離子源[45,58,61-62,66,68,70,78]。金米聰等[79]用大氣壓化學電離(atmospheric pressure chemical ionization,APCI)和ESI分析殺鼠醚,APCI正模式響應最好。R?hrich等[69]考察了ESI、APCI、大氣壓光電離(atmospheric pressure photoionization,APPI)3種離子源分析抗凝血類物質,在APCI、ESI負模式下鼠得克和大隆有最好響應,溴敵隆則只在此兩種模式下有響應。蔡欣欣等[59]考察了不同離子源,敵鼠、氯鼠只在ESI負模式離子化。因此,ESI是同時檢測抗凝血類殺鼠劑的合適之選。
基質效應指色譜分離時共同流出的物質使待測物的離子化效率降低或增高,是LC-MS方法必須考察的問題。已報道的抗凝血類殺鼠劑分析方法中,待測物離子化皆受抑制[62,68-70,78,80],抑制率為6.5%[78]~75%[70]。為了減輕基質效應,可調整色譜條件或優(yōu)化樣品處理,如Clelland為減輕脂肪酸引起的基質效應,在DPX后加入了堿性鋁[66]。
目前LC-MS和LC-MS/MS分析抗凝血類殺鼠劑的方法最常采用四極桿質譜檢測器,其中三重四級桿的多反應監(jiān)測(MRM)模式檢測限可達到0.1 ng/m L[62]。目前報道的兩個測量頭發(fā)中抗凝血類殺鼠劑的LC-MS/MS方法均為使用此檢測法[69-70]。Fourel等[60]用離子阱質譜分析13種抗凝血類物質,檢出限為5~25 ng/m L。Schaff等[80]用軌道阱高分辨質譜分析血液中的抗凝血類殺鼠劑,同時用全掃描質譜和串聯(lián)質譜采集數據,該方法檢測限為2~10 ng/m L。
其他分析方法 除高效液相色譜,亦有使用離子色譜法的分析[53,78,81],如Chen等[78]使用離子色譜-離子阱質譜分析四種茚滿二酮類殺鼠劑,定量下限為0.2~0.5 ng/m L。
Krizkova等[82]用液相色譜-循環(huán)伏安法測定田鼠肝臟的溴敵隆含量,該電化學檢測器能達到5 ng/m L的檢測限。Beklova等[83]使用碳糊電極,以微分脈沖伏安法(differential pulse voltammetry,DPV)測定了動物組織中的溴敵隆,檢出限為0.5 ng/m L。然而,這兩種電化學分析方法選擇性較低,只適合單一目標物的分析[82]。
應用案例關于中國人群中接受治療的抗凝血類殺鼠劑中毒者體內含量的報道尚不多。作者所在的研究團隊近年檢測了多例疑似抗凝血類殺鼠劑中毒患者的血液[62]和頭發(fā)[70]?,F列舉部分案例如下。
血液檢測 應用案例1:男,39歲,與妻子爭執(zhí)后服下家中鼠藥(數量不明),當天被送診,無明顯癥狀。血液中含溴敵隆12.1 ng/m L。
案例2:男,29歲,因不明原因的出血就診,纖維蛋白原含量(Fg)為4.7 g/L(正常值1.8~3.5 g/L),活化部分凝血酶時間(APPT)為123 s(正常值27~41 s),凝血酶原時間60 s(正常值0~16 s)。2天后血樣送實驗室檢測,含溴敵隆89.5 ng/m L。
案例3:男,47歲,口腔出血、胃十二指腸出血、血尿、腰痛一年半??诜S生素K使其凝血指標回復正常,數月后出血復發(fā)。血樣送本實驗室檢測,含溴敵隆10.8 ng/m L。
頭發(fā)檢測 血液檢出抗凝血類殺鼠劑的5例患者(全血中溴敵隆或大隆含量為1.1~422 ng/m L)處,征得同意后采集頭發(fā),分段分析。出現癥狀后9 ~25天采集頭發(fā)的患者,其近發(fā)根1 cm或0.5 cm的頭發(fā)檢出,含量為檢出限(溴敵隆10 pg/mg,大隆25 pg/mg)至78 pg/mg,而遠端頭發(fā)無檢出。推測攝入時間,與患者描述的癥狀出現時間大致相符。
1例55歲女性患者的頭發(fā)采集于出現癥狀6個月后,近頭皮0~8 cm的發(fā)段均可檢出大隆,各段含量從檢出限到54 pg/mg,難以發(fā)現明顯分布規(guī)律。漫長的半衰期使抗凝血類殺鼠劑在攝入后很長時間都能從血液循環(huán)進入頭發(fā),目前尚難從頭發(fā)分析判斷單次或重復攝藥。
結語生物樣品中抗凝血類殺鼠劑的分析對中毒的診斷、治療以及法醫(yī)調查很重要。已建立的生物樣品中抗凝血類殺鼠劑的分析方法中,液相-質譜兼顧選擇性和靈敏度,是目前最常用的分析技術。進一步研究方向可能有:(1)步驟更少、更環(huán)境友好型的前處理及自動化,如針對復雜樣品的QuEChERS方法等;(2)用量更少、更易采集和保存的樣品種類,如唾液、干血點(dry blood spot)等;(3)考察頭發(fā)中的各段含量分布及其隨時間的變化規(guī)律,美發(fā)處理等因素對其影響,頭發(fā)能否判斷反復或單次攝入等問題。
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Review of analysis on anticoagulant rodenticides in biological specimens
ZHU Lin,XIANG Ping△
(Department of Forensic Toxicology,Institute of Forensic Science,Ministry of Justice-Shanghai Key Laboratory of Forensic Medicine,Shanghai 200063,China)
In China,poisoning of anticoagulant rodenticides is common,and the diagnosis is difficult. Analysis of anticoagulant rodenticides in biological samples is very important to clinical diagnosis,treatment,and forensic investigation.The present article reviews the recently reported analytical methods for anticoagulant rodenticides in biological specimens,focusing on the choice of biological specimen,sample preparation,separation and detection technologies,along with the application to poisoning cases using blood or scalp hair by the the authors′study group.The conclusions:blood is appropriate for analysis of anticoagulant rodenticides,and the sample preparation mainly includes liquidliquid extraction or protein precipitation.Hair could serve as implementation to blood in the forensic investigation of exposure history.To date,liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry(LC-MS)is the commonest technology for analyzing anticoagulant rodenticides in biological specimens for its sensitivity and selectivity.
anticoagulants; rodenticides; poisoning; biological specimen; analytical methods
R 595
B
10.3969/j.issn.1672-8467.2015.05.018
2015-03-10;編輯:張秀峰)
中央級公益性科研院所基本科研業(yè)務費專項資金項目(2013G-9);上海市法醫(yī)學重點實驗室資助項目(14DZ2270800)
△Corresponding author E-mail:xiangping2630@163.com
*This work was supported by the Central Public-Interest Scientific Institution Basal Research Fund(2013G-9)and the Research Fund of Shanghai Key Forensic Medicine Laboratory(14DZ2270800).