140年前的1872年3月1日,崛起的年輕美國建立了世界第一個國家公園—黃石國家公園。此后,國家公園成為保存自然風景、歷史和文化的樣板,也成為通過保護、管理以及實施青少年項目而推動旅游經濟發(fā)展、推動文化進步和傳承的典范,具有廣泛意義。
當時,美國國會通過法案,由總統(tǒng)格蘭特簽署,面積為8900平方公里的黃石國家公園得以建立。法案禁止在該公園內人居,不得占用和買賣該公園的土地。這個法案曾遭到當?shù)厝说膹娏曳磳?。很多人想要縮小公園范圍,以便開發(fā)礦業(yè)、采伐樹木和打獵,但沒有成功。該公園在最初幾年里由一個民眾團體負責管理,由于缺乏人力物力財力,自然環(huán)境和野生動物得不到有效保護,大規(guī)模的盜伐、偷獵情況不斷發(fā)生并惡化。1886年,該公園交由美國陸軍管理,且專門成立一個名為“黃石部”的機構,在猛犸溫泉附近設立營地,后來成為黃石要塞。不法行為逐漸得以有效制止。1916年8月,美國國會通過國家公園組織法法案,正式成立美國國家公園管理局,為內政部下屬單位。黃石國家公園管理權于1918年由軍方轉交給該公園管理處。2003年7月31日,黃石要塞被命名為美國國家歷史地標,至今仍是該公園管理局的總部所在地。軍隊在管理期間建立的一整套行之有效的辦法,被國家公園管理局沿用,并在全國推廣使用。
1933年,富蘭克林總統(tǒng)上任,根據(jù)政府重組法案,將一些由國防部管轄的軍事遺址和由農業(yè)部管轄的歷史文化遺址劃歸國家公園管理局管理。經過多年調整,終于形成了一個由聯(lián)邦政府機構統(tǒng)一管理風景名勝和歷史文化遺址的局面。目前,美國聯(lián)邦政府撥給國家公園管理局的年度預算資金為30億美元左右,有員工約2.2萬人,其中4000名至5000名為臨時工或季節(jié)性人員。
如今,美國共有397處正式認定的機構納入國家公園管理局管理范圍。需要說明的是,國家公園管理局管理的并非只是風景名勝。它總共使用20個類別名稱來命名受管理的國家級單位,包括國家公園、國家紀念碑、國家軍事公園、國家戰(zhàn)場遺址、國家歷史公園、國家歷史遺址、國際歷史遺址、國家游步道等。這些單位中著名的有黃石公園、死亡峽谷、佛羅里達州大沼澤等世界級自然風景地,也有軍事要塞、紀念館堂和白宮。名稱中有“國家公園”字樣的只有58個。受管理的單位總占地面積大約為33.8萬平方公里,最大的一處位于阿拉斯加州,面積5.3萬平方公里,而最小的是一棟名人故居,占地80平方米。
從中國人的角度來看,美國國家公園管理局似乎集風景園林、文物古跡、旅游等功能于一身。由該管理局管理的,包括6.8萬多處歷史遺址、2.1萬多座建筑物、6.8萬多處考古遺址,以及負責監(jiān)管的博物館收藏的文物1.2億多件。現(xiàn)在,每年訪問這些受管理單位的游客總數(shù)為2.8億人次。
如同美國其他文化單位一樣,美國國家公園管理局也實施頗有特色的各種青少年項目,每個單位都實施為年輕人提供工作的項目。實施項目主要通過青少年組織來安排,其中最早的一個是建立于1957年的學生保護協(xié)會。學生保護協(xié)會致力于保護文化、歷史遺址,目標為培養(yǎng)這方面的未來領袖。志愿者可以擔當實習生,承擔保護工作。他們通過這些實習機會來獲取經驗,可能有助于以后的工作選擇或者學業(yè)上的進一步深造。另一個大組織是建立于1985年的保護團聯(lián)盟。聯(lián)盟共有136個團體單位,分布在42個州和華盛頓的哥倫比亞特區(qū)。團員年齡在16歲至25歲。國家公園管理局還與美國童子軍合作,專門為年齡為7歲至18歲的男性少年兒童和5歲至18歲的女性少年兒童的戶外訓練提供場地和其他各種支持,通常包括露營、森林知識、水上活動、徒步旅行、野外旅行和運動。這些活動有助于培養(yǎng)少年兒童的公民意識和保護環(huán)境、保護自然的意識。少年兒童則通過這些活動幫助國家公園保護資源。
與一些國家相比,美國沒有那么悠久的古老文明,卻具有雄偉壯觀的自然風景,其歷史和文化也自有波瀾壯闊的一面。壯美風景和歷史文化遺址在美國人認同美國、認同自己是美國人方面起到了無可替代的重要作用。美國人喜歡旅游。而訪問國家公園是美國人文化生活的重要部分。從這個角度來說,受美國國家公園管理局管理的各機構,仿佛是一個個愛國主義教育基地。
從上世紀80年代起,中國建立了國家、省級、縣級三級風景名勝區(qū),對其進行保護和管理,對發(fā)展旅游業(yè)和推動經濟發(fā)展,起到了積極作用。然而,這一體系尚不完善。讓風景名勝區(qū)作為文化產業(yè)產生效益,美國國家公園管理局可以被視為一個值得研究、值得借鑒的案例。
(本文圖片由作者提供)
American National Parks
By David Guo
On March 1, 1872, the U.S. Congress established Yellowstone National Park and American President Ulysses S. Grant signed the park into law. Yellowstone means a great deal to the world: it was the world’s very first national park. National parks in the United States preserve natural beauty, history and cultural models. Through preservation and administration and youth programs, these national parks promote tourism, cultural undertakings, and local economy.
The law bans people from living inside the park. No one is allowed to possess, sell or buy the land of the park. At first, many people strongly opposed the act. Some wanted to make 8,900-km2 Yellowstone smaller so that they could mine, lumber and hunt. In the first years of the park, Yellowstone was managed by a civic group. Due to the lack of manpower and funding, the environment and wildlife were not effectively protected. Large-scale poaching and lumbering took place frequently. In 1886, the U.S. Army was commissioned to oversee the park. In 1916, the National Park Service came into being. In 1918, the army turned the control over to the National Park Service, which inherited many good principles and practices developed and used by the army to protect park animals and natural resources.
In 1933, the National Park Service was reorganized and expanded. The federal agency took over some military sites from the Department of Defense and cultural and historical sites from Department of Agriculture. Nowadays, the NPS is a national agency that manages national parks and cultural and historical sites. The NPS has an annual budget of 3 billion and a work force of 22,000, including 4,000 to 5,000 temporary or season employees.
At present, the U.S has about 397 officially recognized units under the management of the National Park Service. It is worth noting that the NPS has a system of 20 different titles for the park units it manages such as national park, national military park, national historical park, national historic site, national parkway, national preserve and national reserve, national scenic trail, national seashore, etc.
Compared to separate Chinese government departments that manage parks, historical and cultural sites and tourism attractions separately, the NPS is an all-in-one national agency. In addition to parks, the NPS also manages 27,000 historic sites, 21,000 buildings, 68,000 archaeological sites. The NPS also supervises 121 million objects in museum collections. The national park units receive 280 million visitors a year.
Like many other cultural units, the NPS conducts quite a few youth programs. Each unit offers work opportunities for youngsters. In partnership with Student Conservation Association, the NPS offer work opportunities for volunteers to work through internships, conservation jobs and crew experience. Volunteers conduct resource management, historic preservation, cultural resources and conservation programs to gain experience, which may lead to career development and education opportunities.
In partnership with the Corps Network established in 1985, the NPS provides a series of similar work opportunities for Corps Network members who are between the ages of 16 to 25. The network has members in 42 states and Washington D.C. The NPS works with Boy Scouts of America and Girl Scouts of America closely. Boys and girls can camp, learn about forest, take part in aquatic activities, hike, and sports. These activities enable youngsters to cultivate their citizen consciousness and develop a sense of environmental protection. Youngsters learn how to help preserve and protect natural resources.
Unlike some countries, the United States does not have a long history. However, the great country boasts the splendor and majesty of its natural vista and its history and culture are great. The national parks and sites of historical and cultural interests help Americans identify with the great nation, playing an irreplaceable part in uniting the Americans together. Americans love to travel and national parks are a key part of their cultural activities. In sense, national park units under the watch of the NPS are something like patriotism education bases as known in China.