Health Phys. Abstracts，Volume 128，Number 1

TENORM Regulation in the United States of America post-West Virginia vs. EPA

Spenser Lynn， Charles Wilson， Emily Caffrey1

（1. University of Alabama at Birmingham， School of Health Professions， Clinical and Diagnostic Sciences， Health PhysicsProgram， 1720 University Blvd， Birmingham， AL 35294）

Abstract：The regulation of technologically enhanced naturally occurring radioactive materials （TENORM） in the United States ofAmerica consists of fragmentary rules split between the federal and state governments. The US Environmental Protection Agency（EPA） has recognized the complex nature of TENORM regulation but has not issued explicit TENORM rules at the federal level.Some states have enacted their own TENORM statutes and regulations to fill this gap， while others claim the authority to regulateTENORM under their general radiation protection regulations. The Supreme Court of the United States （SCOTUS） ruling in WestVirginia vs. EPA created a new lens through which environmental regulations should be viewed and may have implications for theregulation of TENORM. This paper presents an overview of West Virginia vs. EPA， the major questions doctrine on which SCOTUSbased its opinion， and how it might apply to TENORM regulations at the federal and state levels. Two states， one with explicitTENORM regulations and another with only general radiation protection statutes， are considered in the context of a hypotheticallegal challenge to TENORM regulations. The role and impact of West Virginia vs. EPA in administrative law is still to bedetermined， but it does prompt an opportunity to conduct a new， more thorough review of TENORM regulation at the federal andstate level.

Key words： naturally occurring radionuclides; radiation protection; regulations; safety standards

Health Phys. 128（1）：2-6; 2025

Policy Surveillance Methods Applied to NORM and TENORM Regulation in the Southeast United States

Spenser Lynn1 ， Emily Caffrey1 ， Charles Wilson1

（1. University of Alabama at Birmingham， School of Health Professions， Clinical and Diagnostic Sciences， Health PhysicsProgram， 1720 University Blvd， Birmingham， AL 35294）

Abstract：The regulation of naturally occurring radioactive materials （ NORM） and technologically enhanced naturally occurringradioactive material （TENORM） at the state level in the United States of America varies significantly from state to state. Policysurveillance methods and associated technologies have been developed to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of public healthpolicies. Previous research has demonstrated that policy surveillance methods can be applied to state radiation regulations;however， no organization has taken steps to incorporate these results into a permanent database with a continuous data lifecycleprogram. The first goal of this project aims to apply policy surveillance methods to NORM and TENORM regulations in fivesoutheastern states in the United States with a focus on basic definitions and general licensing requirements. The second goal is tointroduce policy surveillance methods to health physicists and act as a blueprint for establishing additional datasets of radiationregulations.

Key words： naturally occurring radionuclides; radiation protection; regulations; safety standards

Health Phys. 128（1）：7-12; 2025

Risk Assessment for Nuclear Terrorism Probability and Its Application on a HypotheticalNuclear Facility

Joeun L. Kot1 and Jason T. Harris1

（1. Purdue University， School of Health Sciences， Purdue University College of Health and Human Sciences， 550 Stadium MallDrive， West Lafayette， IN 47907）

Abstract：Radiation protection contains the key elements of nuclear safety and security. Despite the overlap between nuclear safetyand security， their objectives differ fundamentally， focusing on unintentional accidents and intentional malicious events，respectively. As such， the Potential Facility Risk Index （ PFRI）， originally created for security purposes， has evolved into anapproach that combines conventional probabilistic risk assessment （PRA）， which is a widely employed method to evaluate thesafety risks of nuclear facilities. This research has developed a risk assessment model within the PFRI framework to calculate theprobability of nuclear terrorism. Three essential components of the model are integrated： an analysis of historical nuclear terrorismdata to determine an initial threat frequency; the target-specific factor using analytical hierarchy process （ AHP ） targetattractiveness analysis; and the adversary motivation factor based on site-specific social influences from the Profiles of IndividualRadicalization in the United States （ PIRUS） dataset. Applied to a hypothetical nuclear facility， the model produces a nuclearterrorism probability of 8. 97 × 10-3 y-1 . The systematic methodology proposed in the study enables the derivation of nuclearterrorism probability with results in the same risk unit as safety risk assessment. This method allows decision makers to seamlesslyincorporate nuclear safety and security risk assessments， offering a comprehensive perspective. Consequently， it enrichescomprehension of nuclear facility risks and establishes the groundwork for future advancements.

Key words： radiation risk; risk analysis; security; weapons

Health Phys. 128（1）：13-23; 2025

Development of a Nuclear Safety and Security Integration Assessment Tool for Research Reactors andAssociated Facilities

Theodore Thomas1 and Jason Harris1

（1. School of Health Sciences Purdue University， 550 Stadium Mall Dr. ， West Lafayette， IN 47907）

Abstract：Nuclear safety and security are essential elements of radiation protection. Integration of nuclear safety and securityprovides a means to identify conflict and synergy points. Research has not been performed to enable integrated practices at thefacility level. A tool was developed through research to help staff and regulators assess the level of integration practiced within aresearch reactor. This tool aims to improve the identification of synergistic and conflict points. Eight criteria of nuclear safety andsecurity integration were used to create the integration assessment tool： access control， transportation， emergency response， properdisposal of materials， testing and maintenance， defense in depth， training and education， and culture. The tool’s final score canrange from 0. 0375 to 1， with a score of 1 indicating complete integration. The tool was used by research reactor staff to assesspracticed integrative techniques. The testing and maintenance criterion scored the highest level of integration （0. 84）. Training andeducation and culture scored the lowest levels of integration （0. 50）. The areas with the highest scores identified points of activelypracticed integration. In contrast， those areas with lower scores indicated a lack of integrative practices. The total integration scorewas 0. 69. This tool determined that the facility practiced an adequate level of integration. By analyzing integration levels with thistool， a measurable standard of integrative practices can be employed to achieve improved radiation protection.

Key words： nuclear reactor; nuclear workers; reactor; nuclear; safety standards

Health Phys. 128（1）：24-36; 2025

Assessing Radiation Fallout in Public Zones near the Nevada National Security Site （NNSS）： A RecentStudy

Krishnakumar Divakar Nangeelil1 ， Haven Searcy1 ， Beverly Parker2，3 ， Zaijing Sun1

（1. Department of Health Physics and Diagnostic Sciences， University of Nevada， Las Vegas， Las Vegas， NV 89154;2. Community Environmental Monitoring Program， National Nuclear Security Administration Nevada Field Office， Las Vegas，NV 89193;3. Division of Hydrologic Sciences， Desert Research Institute， Las Vegas， NV 89119）

Abstract：A comprehensive radiological study was conducted in the surrounding public zones of the Nevada National Security Site toidentify traces of resuspended radioactivity and heavy elemental contamination that might have resulted from various activities. Thestudy used passive and active nuclear methods， specifically gamma spectrometry and instrumental neutron activation analysis，respectively. Passive gamma spectra analysis of air filter papers from various Community Environmental Monitoring Program stationsconclusively verified the presence of radionuclides exclusively originating from the natural decay series of 238 U and 232 Th.Furthermore， gamma spectrometry and instrumental neutron activation analysis of plant samples from surrounding areas of theNevada National Security Site revealed the absence of any unusual elemental contamination in the environment. These resultsdemonstrated that there was no measurable radiological impact on the public zones surrounding the site resulting from the spread ofradioactive materials or toxic heavy metals associated with previous or ongoing activities at Nevada National Security Site.Therefore， the safety of public zones concerning retained radioactivity and harmful elemental contamination arising from NevadaNational Security Site operations is negligible. The significance of this study is further pronounced in the current geopoliticalcontext， as it establishes the baseline elemental composition for various desert plants for future reference.

Key words： monitoring; environmental; nuclear weapons; radioactivity; environmental; spectrometry， gamma

Key words： monitoring; environmental; nuclear weapons; radioactivity; environmental; spectrometry， gamma

Andragogic Improvements in Radiation Safety Training

Chandler Cotton1 ， Charles Wilson2 ， Robert Heath， Jr. 1 ， Emily Caffrey2

（1. Office of Radiation Safety， University of Alabama at Birmingham， Birmingham， United States;2. School of Health Professions， University of Alabama at Birmingham， Birmingham， United States）

Abstract：At the University of Alabama at Birmingham （UAB）， many diagnostic and therapeutic procedures involving radioactivematerials or radiation-producing machines are performed daily. A growing number of minor but preventable incidents related toradiation safety have brought up concerns related to the effectiveness of the training program. A comprehensive literature review wasperformed to summarize post-COVID insights into andragogic online training practices， statistical analyses， and overall retentioncompetencies in radiation safety. Andragogic research shows that the best method of training adult learners is controlled simulationthat tests critical thinking and problem-solving capabilities， drawing upon previous knowledge or experiences. A new trainingcurriculum based on these andragogic principles was designed and administered to a subgroup of UAB radiation workers. Scoresfrom pre-testing and post-testing were collected and analyzed. An ANCOVA was used to account for differences in the pre-testscores between the control and experimental groups， which was found to be statistically significant （p = 0. 018）， suggesting thatsmall changes in a radiation safety training program can have significant impacts in retention of key information.

Key words： curriculum; education; occupational safety; radiation safety

Health Phys. 128（1）：47-51; 2025

A Novel Shielding Device for Cardiac Cath Labs

Lancer Smith1 ， Emily Caffrey2 ， Charles Wilson3

（1. University of Alabama at Birmingham， 1720 University Blvd. ， Birmingham， AL 35294;2. University of Alabama at Birmingham， 806 Wells Ave SE， Huntsville， AL 35801;3. University of Alabama at Birmingham School of Health Professions， 447 School of Health Professions Building， Birmingham，Alabama 35124）

Abstract：This research evaluates the effectiveness of a large specialized cardiac catheterization laboratory shielding device（SCCLSD） placed perpendicular to the patient compared to traditional shielding methods in reducing occupational exposure toscattered X rays， contributing to the ongoing enhancement of radiation safety in the cardiac catheterization laboratory （ CCL）setting. An experimental setup involving an anthropomorphic phantom on the catheterization table simulated radiation scatter from apatient. Measurements were taken systematically at various grid points and heights in the CCL using a Fluke 451P ion chamberwhile mimicking a real interventional scenario. In-air peak exposure rates were analyzed at head， chest， and waist heights in theanteroposterior （AP） position. Results demonstrated that the SCCLSD provided a superior radiation shadow and effective wholebodyradiation exposure reduction compared to conventional shielding devices. Considering that conventional shielding requires staffto wear lead aprons， an effective dose equivalent correction factor was applied for exposure measurements without the SCCLSD.Even after the correction factor， the SCCLSD continued outperforming lead aprons and offered whole-body protection， including thehead and arms， which is typically neglected with conventional shielding. The SCCLSD also reduces exposure to the eyes， aligningwith lower occupational exposure recommendations from ICRP and NCRP. However， proper CCL staff positioning is important inmaximizing the effectiveness of the SCCLSD. Future research avenues may explore exposure rates at different C-arm angles to morecompletely assess the SCCLSD’s impact on occupational exposure.

Key words： correction factors; diagnostic imaging; monitoring; personnel; X rays

Health Phys. 128（1）：52-59; 2025

A 291-day Evaluation of the Performance of a Consumer-grade Temporal Radon Detector

Carly E. Evans1 and Kimberlee J. Kearfott1

（1. Department of Nuclear Engineering and Radiological Sciences， University of Michigan， 2355 Bonisteel Boulevard， Ann Arbor，Michigan， 48109-2104）

Abstract：Affordable， accurate， and robust temporal measurement devices are desirable for screening and assessment of radonlevels in private homes and workplaces. This research expands upon prior research， using the RadonFTlab RadonEye devicethrough a comparison of multiple samples of this instrument with a laboratory-grade instrument， the Saphymo AlphaGUARD， over amore extensive period than reported previously. Data were collected over 291 d in a poorly ventilated basement space in anoccupied building. Environmental conditions varied naturally， changing both the radon source term and radon entry into the spaceapproximating typically deployed conditions. The R-squared linear regression correlation coefficient and relative sensitivities of eachRadonEye with the AlphaGUARD were computed. Overall temporal and diurnal variations were also studied. The sensitivities of allRadonEyes and the AlphaGUARD agreed to within 22% throughout the entire deployment period.

Key words： air sampling; detector; radiation; instrumentation; radon

Health Phys. 128（1）：60-65; 2025

Implementing a Phase II Quality Control Protocol for a High Precision 137 Cs DosimetryCalibration Irradiator

Jordan D. Noey1 ， Colin J. Stewart1 ， Kimberlee J. Kearfott1

（1. Department of Nuclear Engineering and Radiological Sciences， University of Michigan， 2355 Bonisteel Boulevard， Ann Arbor，MI 48109-2104）

Abstract：In medical physics， rigorous quality assurance and quality control protocols are vital for precise dose deliveryapplications. In many health physics applications， the allowable uncertainty for various processes is often greater than that ofmedical physics due to looser safety ties. This results in less demand for quality control and uncertainty analyses， since these maynot be needed. However， certain applications can benefit from a comprehensive quality control program， as it may yield importantinsights， such as air kerma monitoring in dosimetry calibrations for environmental and low-dose applications. By implementing athorough quality control program tailored to specific contexts and needs， uncertainties associated with dose measurements can bequantified with greater accuracy and reliability. This proactive approach not only ensures the integrity of data collected but alsoenhances understanding of the measured doses. For these reasons， a comprehensive quality control initiative was implementedfollowing documented failures in a 137 Cs dosimetry calibration irradiator. This involved systematic charge collection usingNISTtraceable ion chambers to observe long-term changes. A Phase I quality control protocol was previously implemented， whichemployed Shewhart control charts and Nelson’s rules to analyze various datasets subgrouped under different conditions. This studyaddresses the development of a Phase II protocol， which focuses more on uncertainty quantification of systematic errors andirradiator changes， and air kerma precision for dosimetry calibrations. A designed experiment was performed to identify how muchsystematic errors influence the air kerma. Emphasis was placed on stricter quality assurance protocols， continuous data collection，and additional control charts to monitor short-term changes， such as exponentially weighted moving average control charts. Apreirradiation control process was implemented to verify that the total air kerma met the measurement quality objective and to showhow various uncertainties were applied before calibration. This study indicates how uncertainty is applied given observed air kermameasurements from the irradiator. Ongoing efforts aim to streamline the quality control procedure， ensure consistent data collection，and assess its impact on dosimetry applications.

Key words： dosimetry; dosimetry; calibration; quality assurance; safety standards

Health Phys. 128（1）：66-77; 2025

Design of a Low-cost Radiation Weather Station

Ryan A. Kim1 ， Andrew J. E. Kent1 ， Jordan D. Noey1 ， Kimberlee J. Kearfott1

（1. Department of Nuclear Engineering and Radiological Sciences， University of Michigan， 2355 Bonisteel Boulevard， Ann Arbor，MI 48109-2104）

Abstract：Combining a traditional weather station with radiation monitors draws the public’ s attention to the magnitude ofbackground radiation and its typical variation while providing early indications of unplanned radiological releases， such as nuclearpower plant accidents or terrorist acts. Several networks of combined weather and radiation monitoring sensors exist， but these failto be affordable for broad distribution. This work involves creating an affordable system to accumulate data from multiple locationsinto a single open-source database. The data collected should thus serve as a friendly database for high school students. The systemis designed around an inexpensive sensor package featuring a cup anemometer， wind direction vane， and tip bucket rain gauge. ARaspberry Pi 4 microcomputer interfaces through RJ11 and RJ45 connectors to these and other sensors. Custom-designed circuitswere implemented on printed circuit boards supporting sensor chips for temperature， pressure， humidity， and air electricalresistance. The outdoor board communicates with ultraviolet light， soil moisture， and temperature sensors， relaying data usingwired connections indoors where a Raspberry Pi 4 and indoor circuit board are located. The indoor board employs wireless internetprotocol to communicate with a homemade Geiger-Mueller counter and a consumer-grade temporal radon monitor. The systememploys an internet connection to transfer data to a cloudbased storage system. This enables a website with continuously updatedpages dedicated to each established system to display collected data. Weatherproofed fused filament fabricated indoor and outdoorcases were designed. Sensor functions were tested for functionality and accuracy.

Key words： dose; internal; excretion; urinary; nuclear fuel cycle; uranium

Health Phys. 128（1）：78-92; 2025