Chen Shengqian

Chen Shengqian is a professor and doctoral supervisor of the Department of Archaeology and Literature， School of History， Renmin University of China. His main research areas are archaeological theory， prehistoric archaeology， and stone tool analysis.

This book focuses on culture and discusses it from an archaeological perspective. It includes several aspects: to illustrate the uniqueness of the archaeological perspective， introduce the cultural evolution of the Paleolithic Age， especially the birth of cultural modernity (anatomically modern human culture)， and explore the uniqueness of human culture. It explores the origin of civilization from the perspective of agriculture and social conflict.

The Origin of Chinese Cultural Genes: An Archaeological Perspective

Chen Shengqian

China Renmin University Press

April 2021

78.00 (CNY)

Cultural genes are a vague concept， arising from the long-term interaction between cultural and biological processes. They are constantly changing， with no inherent superiority or permanent advantage. Prehistoric China saw the first signs of agriculture more than 10，000 years ago， marking the transition from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic era. The North China Plain and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River were the first to develop cereal agriculture， forming two agricultural origin centers in the north and south. The transition from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic era in South China also began very early. However， due to natural geographic conditions (tropical climate， soil， disease pressures) and new resource opportunities (root crops， aquatic resources)， this region developed a low-level food production system reliant on root crop cultivation， aquatic resource utilization， and a combination of hunting and gathering. Similarly， the cold climate in the Northeast made agricultural conditions poor， but the warming and moistening of the climate during the Holocene provided opportunities for aquatic resource use， leading to a complex cultural adaptation dependent on fishing and hunting. The southwestern region， with its varied terrain and diverse resources， remained most suitable for hunting and gathering， which persisted for the longest time. The northern grasslands developed a new form of agriculture—pastoralism， which effectively utilized the grassland areas. In the northwestern half of China， pastoralism was the primary economic mode， supplemented by cereal agriculture in areas with better water and heat conditions.

This is the change we observe from archaeological evidence. The transition from the Paleolithic to the Neolithic in prehistoric China did not follow a single pattern. Different cultural and ecological regions made different choices. Among these， millet agriculture in the north and rice agriculture in the south had the most significant impact. Surrounding areas gradually adopted agriculture or established stable exchange relations with agricultural communities (pastoral economies were not self-sufficient). China was fortunate in the agricultural era; during prehistoric times， there were few temperate regions suitable for the origin of agriculture， with West Asia and China being prominent examples in the Old World. China had two agricultural origin centers in both the north and south. In historical periods， when faced with nomadic invasions， the south could serve as a buffer zone， which is one of the reasons why Chinese civilization has persisted for over 5，000 years. This land， where rain and heat coincide， especially favored high-yield rice cultivation， which could support higher population densities. However， the labor input required was also astonishing， with tasks such as digging canals， leveling land， plowing， and transplanting. From childhood memories， during the busy farming seasons， even the water buffaloes would become noticeably thinner from the exertion. Traditionally， agriculture is said to rely on the weather， but in the hearts of farmers， hard work is paramount. Only with diligence can good harvests be achieved， and only with thrift can families prosper. Hard work is considered the primary virtue in Chinese culture.

One can imagine the impact of over ten thousand years of agricultural history on the Chinese people. Compared to hunting and gathering， agriculture is a labor-intensive industry. Ethnographic studies reveal that farmers often look down on hunter-gatherers， primarily because the latter truly rely on nature for their sustenance. They do not farm， store little， and their lives appear to be free and unrestrained but lack security. Hunter-gatherers generally avoid agriculture because it is too arduous， monotonous， and laborious， requiring long periods of waiting for a harvest. Around 1910， Russian geographer Arsenyev led an expedition in the Ussuri mountain region， home to Chinese， indigenous minorities， Russians， Koreans， and others. This relatively isolated environment allowed for the study of the cultural traits of different groups. In In the Wilds of Ussuri: Adventures in the Ussuri Region， he observed: “The enterprising spirit of the Chinese is astonishing. Some hunt deer， others dig for ginseng... As long as there is a house， there is a new livelihood... They are not afraid to expend effort as long as it brings continuous income.” The resilience and hard-working nature of the Chinese are ingrained in their “genes.” This trait is also a worldwide impression of Chinese people striving abroad， undoubtedly influenced by centuries of rigorous and diligent living. It is fair to say that all contemporary human groups are descendants of those who endured hardships; otherwise， they would not have survived historical survival challenges. Chinese civilization stands out slightly due to its long agricultural culture.

The long history of agriculture also fostered another related cultural gene—peace， or we can say， harmony. Chinese culture upholds the moral ideal of moderation， known as “the highest wisdom lies in the mean.” Jade， a representative material， aptly symbolizes the inclusiveness and peaceful nature of Chinese culture. China is the birthplace of jade culture， using jade for nearly ten thousand years. Jade is warm and smooth in texture， hard yet gentle in color. The Chinese also use jade to describe the virtues of gentlemen and the beauty of women. This cultural preference was further developed in the long agricultural society. The foundation of Chinese agricultural society was the small-scale peasant economy， self-sufficient with limited external desires. Agriculture domesticated plants and animals and also human beings. Domesticated animals lost their wildness， and so did humans. With agriculture came civilization， which originally implied adherence to rules and etiquette. Confucian thought opposes violence， as in “The Master did not speak of strange phenomena， feats of strength， disorder， or spirits.” Most wars in Chinese history fall into two categories: the plundering of the Central Plains agricultural society by nomadic groups， with the agricultural regimes defending themselves; and internal turmoil within the agricultural society， where oppressed and exploited peasants rose up out of desperation. Modern China began to transform through social revolution to reverse its fate; external wars were still about resisting foreign invasion， but the nature of war remained unchanged. Peace is a cultural gene of China; China will not resort to force unless absolutely necessary.

As a Chinese living in Chinese society， it’s not easy for us to notice our own characteristics， making it difficult to identify meaningful cultural genes. There was a popular belief online about the philosopher Bertrand Russell’s accurate prediction of China’s future development in the 1920s. Skeptical， I sought out Russell’s book The Problem of China to read. As an outsider， Russell observed Chinese society with a detached clarity. In the early 1920s， Russell spent over a year visiting and lecturing in Beijing， interacting with many Chinese intellectuals and engaging with all levels of society. He noticed a characteristic of China that we have almost forgotten —elegance! Music， chess， calligraphy， painting， poetry， wine， and flowers—Chinese life is permeated with cultural significance accumulated over thousands of years. “Sparse shadows slant across the clear shallow water， and the faint fragrance drifts in the moonlit dusk.” Chinese people can appreciate the shadow of plum blossoms on a white wall and lose themselves in a barely visible painting. Their appreciation of beauty is subtle and refined， deeply rooted in a rich cultural history. When writing poetry， if it does not include some classical allusions， it would lack depth. When practicing calligraphy， if it does not trace back to ancient inscriptions and famous works， even meticulously written characters would not be appreciated. Chinese elegance is built upon deep historical and cultural fermentation， like wine that grows more fragrant with age. This can be traced back to the Neolithic ancestors’ love for jade. The beauty of jade is implicit， which became a characteristic of Chinese aesthetics. Without the continuous thread of Chinese civilization， we could not have such deep cultural significance or such long-lasting aftertaste. Having experienced much， Chinese culture disdainfully avoids blunt and direct expressions， preferring introspective exploration. In other words， Chinese culture advocates self-discipline and adherence to propriety. Chinese elegance is implicit， subtle， and profound. This elegance is a cultural aspect of China that is being revived and is worth promoting.

Cultural genes are historical products. If you dislike the term “genes，” you can call them traditions， habits， or preferences. Culture is not only an adaptation but also a result of human choice. Unlike animals that adapt passively (as Qian Mu put it)， the human world is proactive. This might be what cultural gene theory overlooks. Choices (including learning， strategizing， and decision-making) are like paths with many forks. Choosing one direction means giving up others. Ancient Chinese， having taken the agricultural path early on， lived densely populated lives and in culturally intertwined environments. Some reasons might have been obligatory， others were proactive choices， even pursuits. Just as the ancestors chose to put jade in a high place early on， jade， in turn， influenced Chinese culture. The ultimate dream of Chinese culture is “harmony between heaven and humans.” Guided by this thought， many subsequent choices naturally followed. Pursuing harmony between humans and nature， and among people， including inner completeness and balance， as well as tolerance and peace in interactions with different groups or cultures， the genetic roots of Chinese culture lie here. Tracing back to prehistoric times helps us understand the history and reality of Chinese culture. For most of the past millennia， these cultural genes have been advantageous. In modern times， they have been criticized. Just as we were about to discard them， they seemed to adjust and find alignment with contemporary societal development. The old nation finds new life， shedding its ailments， bringing joy. Since modern times， we have been fond of self-critical analysis. This offers a different perspective， perhaps providing some balance. Even if readers disagree， they might understand it as an expectation.