Chen Chuanxi

Chen Chuanxi is a professor and doctoral supervisor at Renmin University of China. He is currently the director of the Institute of Buddhist Art at Renmin University of China， the deputy director of the Theory Committee of the China Artists Association， and the director of the Chinese Culture Promotion Association. He was a researcher at the University of Kansas and a professor at the University of Malaya and Tunku Abdul Rahman University.

The author Chen Chuanxi tells the story of this silk color painting created by Wang Ximeng of the Northern Song Dynasty in the form of puzzle solving. It is arranged in the form of pictures and texts， from the knowledge of Chinese painting， clearing the layers of fog， the historical lessons before crossing， looking for the footprints of the genius boy Wang Ximeng， the artistic experiment under the influence of Huizong， the story and legend in the circulation of famous paintings， and asking questions to the author.

Step into A Thousand Li of Rivers and Mountains， traverse a series of “l(fā)abyrinths，” and unravel numerous “mysteries.” This long scroll of bluish-green landscape hides such rich connotations behind it， leaving a lasting impression. The historical backdrop of the Northern Song Dynasty， its aesthetic views， and philosophical trends profoundly influenced the creator Wang Ximeng， as well as his patrons， Emperor Huizong of Song and Cai Jing， progressively shaping the creation of this painting. Passed down through history， admired， and analyzed， it leaves behind stories， giving us the opportunity today to peel back the layers and come as close as possible to the original truths. The past will not return， nor can we recreate the scenes or motives of Wang Ximeng’s era. We can only analyze， validate， and interpret based on the existing artwork and documented research. Future scholars and readers will heed the call of A Thousand Li of Rivers and Mountains， further enriching its meaning.

As this journey nears its end， I share with you some questions and answers about A Thousand Li of Rivers and Mountains and classical Chinese paintings from over the years， to inspire readers to ask more questions， delve into， and appreciate the beauty of classical culture， thus keeping the journey ever-evolving， with new experiences each time.

Question: How challenging was Wang Ximeng’s painting education?

Answer: Wang Ximeng hailed from a literati family， considered “scholars of the realm” by Emperor Huizong， indicating broad knowledge and keen insight， which led Huizong to support and claim that he was “teachable.” His formal painting education lasted about three years.

His curriculum required mastery of Confucianism， history， literature， etc.， to cultivate their literary refinement， poetry， and the ability to evoke ancient sentiments. Professional courses demanded proficiency in various painting genres， including Buddhist and Taoist paintings， figure paintings， landscapes， birds and animals， flowers and bamboo， and architectural paintings， with skills in life drawing， creativity， and creating long scrolls. After completing painting studies， exams required originality， not mere imitation， proving more challenging than contemporary art school graduate exams.

Question: Why didn’t Wang Ximeng go directly to the painting academy， instead joining the Imperial Manuscript Repository?

Answer: Entry into the painting academy was extremely competitive; Emperor Huizong himself set very challenging exam questions， tougher than those in the painting school. Graduates from the painting school had solid foundational skills but found conceptual creativity particularly tough. Huizong’s exam questions often involved ancient poetry， requiring students not only to produce artwork but also to convey a sense of depth and endless interpretation. Lacking noble patronage at that time， Wang Ximeng joined the “Imperial Manuscript Repository.” He was forced to stay there， as it was a means to make a living. At that time， the deputy of the manuscript repository earned 2，000 copper coins. A cup of soy milk or tea could be bought for one coin， and a steamed bun for two coins. By today’s standards， Wang Ximeng’s salary at the repository was just enough to cover his expenses.

Question: Why did Emperor Huizong establish the painting academy?

Answer: Emperor Huizong founded the painting academy because the contestants were not proficient in creating large murals. In 1101， when Emperor Huizong ascended the throne， he wanted to create several Daoist murals and summoned the best artists from across the land. Hundreds came， but none satisfied him， prompting him to establish a specialized art school， the only imperial art academy in Chinese history， akin to today’s royal art academies， aimed at training painters， with a typical study period of three years， including boarding， meals， and provision of stationery and painting supplies.

Question: What was the relationship between Cai Jing and Wang Ximeng?

Answer: Cai Jing’s inscriptions reveal his deep familiarity with Wang Ximeng’s age and experiences， such as his prior studies in the painting academy and work in the Imperial Manuscript Repository under Emperor Huizong’s guidance， indicating that they knew each other before the creation of A Thousand Li of Rivers and Mountains. Wang Ximeng likely gained an audience with Huizong through Cai Jing’s mediation， presenting his paintings several times in early 1112， though not initially meeting Huizong’s exacting standards. Eventually， in 1113， under Huizong’s directive， Wang Ximeng was rushed to complete the large-scale A Thousand Li of Rivers and Mountains. During this time， Cai Jing actively mediated between Huizong and Wang Ximeng， ultimately not only securing recognition for Wang but also earning Huizong’s reward for Cai， who received the scroll of A Thousand Li of Rivers and Mountains.

Question: Why is A Thousand Li of Rivers and Mountains referred to as “bluish-green，” “big bluish green，” or “colored painting?”

Answer: In ancient landscape painting， there were only two styles: ink wash and colored. Ink washing involves using water to dilute the ink without adding color. Colored means adding color， also known as “set color” painting. Sometimes ink wash includes a slight tint， termed “l(fā)ight set color.” At times， a slight coloration is added to ink wash， known as “ink wash” or “l(fā)ight colored ink wash.” When more vibrant colors are used， it’s called “set color.” “Bluish-green” primarily features malachite green and azurite blue; “Big bluish-green” uses intense colors predominantly， as seen in A Thousand Li of Rivers and Mountains; “Gold and jade landscapes” build on the “big bluish-green” style by adding gold lines and gold touches.

Question: What’s the significance of seals on Chinese paintings?

Answer: Seals began appearing on Northern Song Dynasty paintings but were not very common， typically stamped below the signature with personal or studio seals. From the Yuan Dynasty onward， it became rare not to include personal or studio seals on calligraphy and paintings. Artists like Su Shi， and Mi Fu often used personal and studio seals on their calligraphy; Emperor Huizong’s calligraphy featured multiple seals and large impressions; Guo Xi’s landscape paintings bore his seal.

Collecting seals appeared during the Tang and Five Dynasties periods. Tang Dynasty had the “Zhenguan” seal; The Southern Tang of the Five Dynasties used ink-stamped “Jixianyuan Imperial Seal，” “Jianye Study Seal，” and “Neihetong Seal，” among others. Emperor Huizong of the Song Dynasty is most renowned for his “Xuanhe Seven Seals，” aligned from right to left as follows: gourd-shaped “Imperial Script” seal， “Double Dragon” square seal， “Xuan” and “He” seals. Above were the “Daguang” seal， with a tail-end featuring connected “Xuanhe” and “Zhenghe” seals， and the large， multi-layered “Inner Palace Library Seal.” These seven seals collectively are known as the “Xuanhe Seven Seals.” Sometimes， the “Chonghe” and “Xuanhe Secret” seals were also used. Private collectors often used more seals; During the Ming Dynasty， Xiang Yuanbian used many seals on his collected paintings， and Liang Qingbiao also stamped numerous seals on his collection. The Ming imperial court used the “Ceremonial Surveillance Office Seal，” often only half-stamped on paintings， with only “Office Seal” or “Surveillance” visible， the front half stamped on the handle to match the full seal with the corresponding painting. In the Qing Dynasty， Emperor Qianlong’s private collection featured the most extravagant and numerous seals， which won’t be elaborated here.

Regarding the colors used for seals， the Tang and Five Dynasties predominantly used honey or Bai Ji (Bletilla Striata) water， i.e.， water-based inks. Oil-based inks appeared during the early Song Dynasty， but the era saw mixed use of water and oil inks， with water inks prone to spreading and blurring and less durable than oil inks. After the Southern Song Dynasty， almost exclusively oil-based inks were used. By the Yuan Dynasty， water-based inks had virtually disappeared， with only oil-based inks in use. From the Ming and Qing dynasties to the present， oil-based inks have been exclusively used.

Question: What are the “Six Principles of Chinese Painting”?

Answer: During the Six Dynasties period， paintings were primarily in color. The ancient “Six Principles，” articulated by Xie He over 1，500 years ago， served as both creative and evaluative standards for painting.

The first principle， “Spirit Resonance，” refers to the depiction of the spirit and mood of figures in the painting， expressed through brushwork and color. When appreciating a painting， its vibrancy is evaluated first; a vibrant work can also display majesty， weight， and strength. For instance， the Ming artist Xu Wei’s brushwork displayed intense passion and vigor， yet still conveyed vitality， as Xu was a great literati， poet， and dramatist with a profound cultural foundation， making his works noteworthy.

The second principle， “Bone Method” or the use of the brush， pertains to the artistic skill and brushwork in painting. Especially in freehand painting， artistic skill is judged by the quality of lines and brushwork. However， only those with high cultural refinement can accurately assess the quality of brushwork in a painting.

The third principle， “Correspondence to the Object，” entails realistic representation. It requires that cattle should not resemble horses， mountains should not look like graves， and the dynamics of a mountain range and the elegance of a solitary peak should be distinctly represented. In A Thousand Li of Rivers and Mountains， the mountains， water， waterfalls， and trees are depicted with specific and typical details， which are also focal points for appreciation.

The fourth principle， “Suitability to Type，” involves using colors appropriate to the objects depicted. However， later generations also innovated， such as the Song Dynasty artists who painted bamboo in red， even though bamboo is naturally green and red bamboo does not exist in the natural world. Moreover， contemporary artists even paint green dogs， green horses， and red mountains， creating wonder through these unusual choices.

The fifth principle， “Composition，” is critical in painting. A composition that is too balanced or too sparse， too dense or too dispersed does not work well. A good composition involves the interplay of high and low elements， dense and sparse areas， and variations in intensity， fostering a sense of development and complementarity. The layout should accommodate looks and glances， display hidden and visible elements， support and enhance features， and reveal the depth of field through a deliberate and subdued arrangement.

The sixth principle， “Transmission by Copying，” emphasizes the importance of learning from and emulating tradition. This principle highly values traditional skills in painting， which， after the Yuan Dynasty， were linked with “antique charm.” Books and paintings needed to embody this antique charm， as it was considered a critical standard for high quality in art.

Question: What are the “Six Essentials”?

Answer: At the end of the Tang Dynasty， when ink painting became prominent， Jing Hao， in his Treatise on Brushwork， introduced the “Six Essentials，” spirit， charm， thought， scenery， brush， and ink. “Spirit” and “charm” refer to the emotional state of the painting， achieved through the brush (spirit) and ink (charm). “Thought” involves “distilling the essence and contemplating the form of objects，” not merely depicting what one sees but rather contemplating and capturing the most visually appealing aspects. “Scenery” pertains to “adapting to the times and seeking the sublime to create truth，” aiming to reveal the seasonal aspects of landscapes， exhaustively explore remarkable peaks and ridges， and create true and beautiful impressions. The atmosphere of a landscape painting is crucial. A painting with a poor atmosphere is difficult to appreciate; a painting with a well-conceived atmosphere captivates the viewer.