This book takes “ice and snow culture” as the core concept， takes time as a clue， and introduces the historical evolution of ice and snow sports in terms of their origin， rooting， and prosperity in China chronically.

Ice and Snow Sports

Culture in China

Advised by the Winter Sports Administrative Center of the General Administration of Sport of China

Edited by Editorial Board of Ice and Snow Sports Culture in China

Academy Press

January 2022

800.00 （CNY）

The Historical Roots of Early Ice and Snow Sports Culture

Around 20，000 years ago， the Last Glacial Maximum （LGM） declined. As the glaciers began to recede， humans migrated to higher latitudes and altitudes. The Younger Dryas， which occurred about 10，000 years ago， interrupted this warming trend， but this was short-lived， followed by more rapid warming in the Holocene Era. Once again， human activities began to move to higher grounds.

Ice and snow sports culture can be traced back to people’s production modes， lifestyles and recreations. From hunting on skis， displayed in petroglyphs in the Altai Region in Xinjiang tens of thousands of years ago， to a variety of activities on snow， such as archery， polo， and sledding， to the bingxi （“playing on the ice”） custom in the Qing Dynasty （1636--1912）， all these gave birth to the ice and snow sports seen in modern times.

Section I. Ancient Altai Skiing Petroglyphs and Ice-Snow Hunting Culture

During the late LGM， people living in the Altai Mountains had already adapted to the local snowy environment. They developed a nomadic way of hunting and gathering in order to maintain subsistence and survive.

The Altai Region in Xinjiang， China， was a vital area for skiing， with many petroglyphs depicting skiers discovered by archaeologists. In 2005， a petroglyph dating back to over 10，000 years ago was found by Chinese archaeologists in the Dundebulake area of the Altai Prefecture. The skis shown in the petroglyph were shaped in their simplest and shortest form， supporting the view that this area may rank among the earliest known origins of skiing. In the upper left of the petroglyph， a dozen skiers were hunting a herd of bison with snowboards， indicating that the people in this area had already mastered hunting skills in the snowfields， and that the Altai Region was one of the first ice and snow civilizations in prehistoric Eurasia.

With the migration of the Altai inhabitants， their hunting culture was transmitted to Siberia’s environment. Some scholars believe that the people using microlithic tools in North Asia entered the northwestern part of the Tibetan Plateau and became ancestors there. Influenced by the ice and snow culture that had spread from the Altai Mountains， a shared culture was developed across a broader area between the plateau and the surrounding lowlands in the Tianshan Pamir-Kunlun Mountains area.

Livestock farming dates back to 10，000 years ago in the Altai Region. Around 8，000 years ago， as the weather became warmer and more humid， wheat farming skills spread from Western Asia to the northern foothills of the Kopet Mountains in Southwest Central Asia and then 5，000 years ago to the Altai Mountains. Early Neolithic people living in the Altai Mountains had fostered rich and diverse agriculture and animal husbandry culture as well as ice and snow culture.

The skiing and hunting culture of the Dingling people （called Tiele in the Sui and Tang dynasties， 581--907）， an ancient Chinese ethnic group that lived in the area south of Lake Baikal， was recorded in the Shanhai Jing： Hainei Jing （Classic of Mountains and Seas： Classic of Regions Within the Seas）： “There is a country called ‘Dingling’ where people are hairy from the knees down and they have horse hooves. They are skilled at running.” The “horse hooves” actually refer to fur skis. Tongdian （Comprehensive Institutions， a Chinese institutional history and statecraft encyclopedia） describes in detail the Dingling’s use of skis made of horsehides and wood： “In this snow-covered Country， people wear wooden skis for hunting in the snowfield. The skis were shaped like shields， with the front part leaning upwards and the bottom covered with horsehide. When they hunt on flat ground， Dingling people also use ski poles to help hunting just like punting a boat.”

People in Northeast Asia also developed a rich ice and snow culture in ancient times， most significantly represented by the Shiwei people living in the Heilongjiang River basin. According to Suishu： Beidi Zhuan： Shiwei Zhuan （Book of Sui Dynasty） written by Wei Zheng （a historian in the Tang Dynasty， 618--907）， the Shiwei people’s livelihood depended highly on archery and hunting. Thus， they developed various snowfield living skills， such as “skiing on wood （sled），” and ice fishing skills， such as “chiseling the ice and then netting and shooting fish and turtles.”

Section II. Traditional Recreation

The origins of some sports can be traced back to traditional life and recreational activities in ice and snow environments. Polo in China was recorded as early as the Han Dynasty. Historian Liu Zijian investigated polo history from the Tang Dynasty through the Northern Song to the Southern Song dynasties （618--1279）. He found that polo， favored by the Northwest and Inner Asia， was introduced to China at the beginning of the Later Tang Dynasty.

However， polo began to decline during the Song Dynasty. Horse-riding and archery was another traditional folk activity among the Uyghur people at the time. Xiyu Shicheng Ji， a book recording the western region written in the Song Dynasty， describes how Gaochang （in present-day Turpan， Xinjiang） people gathered in spring for pleasure. They rode， shot and sacrificed their prey to stave off disasters.

There is an abundance of historical records of horse-riding and archery on the Mongolian grasslands. According to History of the Yuan Dynasty： Collected Biographies， Muqali， a famous general under Genghis Khan， “was very good at archery with long and strong arms， and he could draw a strong bow of two piculs （about 120 kg）.” Mongolian bows of that period were generally made of horns with sinew bowstrings， and the arrows were primarily made of wood. As early as the Liao， Jin and Yuan dynasties， horse-riding and archery had become very popular and were central activities at many festival ceremonies. Regardless of age or gender， people would bring bows， arrows， and horses to participate.

“Da huata” was a popular ice recreation among the folk and the court. In the Qing official Chen Kangqi described how people played da huata： “First， water was drawn and poured to make an ice hill， 30--40 feet high （9--13m） and incredibly slippery. Brave men would wear furred pigskin shoes to enhance their speed. The one who slid down from the top of the hill without falling would be the winner.”

There are records of extensive use of ice beds in China’s traditional farming. Ice beds， also known as ice rafts， have been used in traditional farming areas since the Northern Song Dynasty for transportation and recreational purposes. Dream Pool Essays （Mengxi Bitan） describes an ice bed as a raft that can be dragged on the ice with people sitting on it. Painting of Peace and Auspiciousness， drawn in the Yuan Dynasty， depicts a scene of children playing football and riding on the ice bed in winter.

Activities of the Twelve Lunar Months （Shieryue Yueling Tu）， presumably painted by imperial court painters during the Qianlong reign （1736--1795）， portrays scenes from the court and folk life during the twelve months of the year in the Qing Dynasty. In the scroll of the twelfth lunar month， there are scenes of children playing cuju （traditional Chinese football） and making snow lions. In another scene， children can be seen playing on ice beds on the lake.

During the Qianlong reign， the ice bed was a popular recreational tool for both the court and the folk. In the bingxi （playing on the ice） ceremonies performed during that period， an ice bed was used as the emperor’s vehicle to review the ceremony. Ice and snow sleds and plows were a common means of production and transportation in these snowy and icy regions. They were also popular recreation tools for both children and adults. The animals used to pull the plows included camels， reindeer， horses， and dogs. These tools were later developed by varying degrees into equipment for sports.

Section III. Bingxi Ceremony Promoting National Customs

Bingxi， translated to ice play or ice sport， is a traditional form of recreation carried out on the ice. Bingxi originated in northern people’s winter activities in ancient times and was formed in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. Pao bingxi （running ice sport） and cuju （traditional Chinese football） are some of the activities played in bingxi. On the second day of the tenth year of Tianming （1625）， Nurhaci， the founding emperor of the Later Jin Dynasty， held an ice ceremony on the frozen Taizi River with principal officials and their families. After the Qing troops entered the Shanhai Pass， they established systems to examine soldiers’ archery， martial arts， and other military skills. Bingxi activities were also incorporated into the military training for the Eight-Banner soldiers. This was in order to secure the northern border， maintain the army’s combat capacity， and prevent decadence in ease and comfort. In 1681， the twentieth year of his reign， the Kangxi Emperor ordered the building of the Mulan Paddock and participated in hunting， known as “Mulan Autumn Hunting”. The activity was of great significance for both strengthening the army and defending the Country.

Bingxi， as a form of traditional folk culture， gradually evolved from a festive entertainment to a regular ritual and eventually to a national event. The word bingxi was put forward by the Qianlong Emperor in his Ode to Bingxi written in the tenth year of his reign （1745）. The Qianlong Emperor elevated bingxi to the status of a “national custom”.

The bingxi ceremony was held multiple times every year between the Winter Solstice and the eighth day of the twelfth lunar month. After the twenty-fourth year of the Qianlong reign （1759）， it had become routine to watch bingxi at Chanfu Temple in Beihai Park on the first day of the twelfth lunar month.

The locations and procedures of rituals of the bingxi ceremony could reflect the space and order of the national show. Painting of the Imperial Feast at the Purple Light Pavilion， drawn during the Qianlong period， illustrates the importance of the bingxi ceremony in the ritual system of the Qing court， in which bingxi ceremonies functioned as both a military ritual and a ritual for guests. This painting depicts an imperial feast to celebrate the pacification of the Western Regions， held in front of the Purple Light Pavilion on the second day of the twenty-sixth year of the Qianlong reign （1761）.

During the feast， bingxi was held on the surface of the frozen Taiye Lake. The painting depicts Emperor Qianlong’s ice bed， Eight-Banner soldiers waiting for qiangdeng， an old form of modern speed skating， and the ongoing “spinning dragon and ball shooting” game.

Wu Zhenyu， a minister of the Qing Dynasty， recorded the “spinning dragon and ball shooting” game in his historical notes Yangjizhai Conglu： Soldiers glided in line according to the colors of the Eight Banners. One person held a small flag in the front， and two people with a bow and arrow followed. One or two hundred such groups lined up on the ice spiraling like a winding dragon. The entire procession ended with a young child holding a flag marking the dragon’s tail. There were goals set up near the emperor‘s seat. A “heaven ball” was hung above the goal， and an “earth ball” was placed below the goal. Soldiers had to shoot these two balls during their fast movement over the ice. Those who successfully hit the ball would be rewarded.

Since the Ming Dynasty， the Purple Light Pavilion functioned as a venue for emperors to inspect soldiers’ horse-riding， archery， and martial arts training. Since the early Qing Dynasty， the pavilion served as a site for martial arts examinations. During the Qianlong reign， the perceived weakening of the Eight Banners’ horse-riding and archery skills prompted the Qianlong Emperor to erect a monument in the pavilion that admonished the Eight Banners to strengthen their horse-riding and archery traditions.

The comparison of Painting of Horse Riding and Illustrations of Famous Places in China clearly shows the actions in the bingxi ceremony are closely related to horse-riding and archery.

During the Qianlong reign， the bingxi ceremony was regarded as a “national custom，” with the hope of revitalizing the country. However， as the Qing Dynasty declined， the imperial bingxi ceremony also came to an end in the Guangxu reign （1875--1908）. Flying ice skates could not save the country; however， the wonderland of ice and snow would soon usher in the dawn of a revitalized nation.