Alexander Gombert, Florian Simon

Spinal cord ischemia (SCI), a frequent complication following open and endovascular thoracoabdominal aortic aneurysm (TAAA) repair, is a feared complication with relevant impact on a patient’s quality of life. In the early days of open TAAA repair, more than one third of the patients suffered from SCI. Nowadays, due to improved preventive measures and the option of staged endovascular TAAA repair,10 % of all patients are affected by spinal cord problems after TAAA repair (Rocha et al., 2020). A recently published metaanalysis could not confirm a significant lower rate of SCI after endovascular TAAA repair if compared with open repair. The particular risk factors such as an extended length of covered aortic segments above 20 cm, the placement of endografts between T9–12, the occlusion of the left subclavian or hypogastric arteries, perioperative hypotension and anemia as well as a long total proceduretime remain as relevant factors affecting the risk of post-procedural SCI (Tenorio et al.,2019). Recently, preemptive interventional occlusion of intercostal arteries in the area of stent deployment has been described as a possibility to amplify the collateral network of the spinal cord before the covering of relevant arteries (Simon et al., 2020).

Among others, cerebrospinal fluid drainage(CSFD), spinal cord cooling, re-implantation of segmental arteries during open TAAA repair as well as permissive hypertension and avoidance of anemia have been described to be preventive regarding SCI (Figure 1; Xue et al., 2018). Although all these measures follow a comprehensive physiological theory,current literature reveals only limited clinical success and the current guidelines of the European Society of Vascular Surgery give no clear recommendation for the majority of these strategies (Riambau et al., 2017). In this respect, some options to prevent spinal cord ischemia during open and endovascular TAAA repair will be discussed.

Somatosensory evoked potentials (SSEP):SSEP monitoring is able to record stimulation of the posterior tibial nerve by use of electrodes placed on the scalp. According to clinical studies, SSEP can be used for identification of dominant intercostal arteries and to determine if these vessels should be re-implantated intraoperatively(Galla et al., 1999). However, SSEP is not able to record motor function as perfusion of the anterior corticospinal tract is not assessable.Therefore, SSEP can be associated with delayed detection of ischemia, which means a relevant reduction of its specificity.

Motoric evoked potentials (MEP):Transcranial stimulation and the technique of MEP recording has been described regarding its potentially beneficial application during TAAA repair due to its ability to monitor the spinal cord integrity. Especially the correlation of MEP-amplitudes decrease intraoperatively and postoperative SCI has been assessed and leads to a broad usage of MEP-measurements as part of the neuromonitoring during open and endovascular TAAA repair (Jacobs et al.,2002).

A series of 5 stimuli with an interstimulus interval of 2 ms and a stimulus intensity of 500 V is applied to the scalp through four electroencephalographic disc electrodes placed in the vertex position with three inactive electrodes over the forehead. The MEPs are recorded with skin electrodes over the right and left anterior tibialis and rectus femoris muscles as well as over the abductor pollicis brevis muscles on both sides which serves as control for confounders that might influence the MEPamplitudes other than SCI. Without the use of intraoperative neuromonitoring by means of MEP-measurement, no online information about spinal cord function is available during surgery. Based on clinical experience, a decline of at least 50% to 75% is evaluated as expression of critical spinal cord ischemia. This may correlate with postprocedural paraplegia. If MEPs remain normal, intercostal arteries are reattached if the aortic wall allows a safe anastomosis. If MEPs decrease to critical levels, patent intercostal or lumbar arteries should become revascularized. In any case,attempts to revascularize the spinal cord are carried out until the MEPs are restored.The influence of anesthetic agents on MEPs potential amplitude and the resistance of axonal conduction to ischemia leading to a slow assessment are major disadvantages of MEP measurement. Furthermore, the application and the evaluation of the findings is sophisticated and institutional experience is relevant regarding the practicability of the technique.

Near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS):NIRS has been described as a non-invasive,promising option to monitor spinal cord perfusion during and after TAAA repair.Bilaterally placed NIRS optodes at the thoracic (T5–7) and lumbar (L1–3) levels are used to measure the oxygenation level of local perfusion in several cubic centimeters of tissue underneath the NIRS optode. This information can be used for the determination of spinal cord oxygenation.Reliable data, which would support the application of this technique is pending as multicentric trials are ongoing (Vanpeteghem et al., 2020).

Biomarkers:The application of biomarkers,which can be measured in patients’ blood and CSF, would enable the detection spinal cord ischemia intra- and postoperatively.Additionally, these biomarkers could be a viable option to assess the spinal cord function pre-, intra-, and postoperatively.

So far, several biomarkers have been evaluated regarding their potential association with acute spinal cord trauma and ischemia. Elevated levels of lactate in the CSF as well as elevated levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein, S100B and neuronespecific enolase in CSF and serum have been described as useful biomarkers to monitor acute spinal cord damage (Lases et al., 2005). Yet, ambiguous results can be found in literature: neurone-specific enolase, a dominant enolase-isoenzyme found in neuronal and neuroendocrinetissues, is a 78 kDa gamma-homodimer with a biological half-life of 24 hours. Lases et al.(2005) found a poor correlation between levels of neurone-specific enolase in CSF and postoperative paraplegia.

Glial fibrillary acidic protein, first described in 1971, is an intermediate filament protein expressed by many cell types within the central nervous system. Anderson et al.(2003) were able to show a rather weak correlation between glial fibrillary acidic protein and SCI as clinically relevant endpoint. According to the authors’appraisement, no study is available leading to clear results, which would support a recommendation for the routine application of biomarkers of SCI during open and endovascular TAAA repair so far.

Pharmacological agents:A multitude of pharmacological agents has been suggested being effective in protection of the spinal cord during the period of intraoperative hypoperfusion (Reece et al., 2003).These positive effects on the spinal cord perfusion have been mainly observed in animal models. Among others, naloxon,phenobarbital, memantine and riluzole showed significant neuroprotective effects in dogs and rabbits. Dexmedetomidine, a selective α-2 adrenoceptor agonist, is known as an adjuvant to general anesthesia. Its potential organoprotective effects have become evident within the last years, as it showsin vitroandin vivoprotective effects in kidney, lung, brain, heart, and liver tissues by ameliorating ischemia/reperfusion injury and inhibition of pro-inflammatory signaling pathways. In an animal study with rabbits, perioperative treatment with dexmedetomidine was associated with a significant preservation of neurological function following induced spinal cord ischemia/reperfusion injury with improved neuronal survival in the spinal cord. Yet,so far, no clinical application has been described.

隨著工作穩(wěn)定，熟悉和適應(yīng)了工作環(huán)境，關(guān)注學(xué)生、課堂和教學(xué)管理的教育信念和學(xué)生信念開始進(jìn)入她的教師信念體系。

Superoxide dismutase, which catalyzes the dismutation of superoxide radicals, was not related to neuroprotective effect because of its short half-life. In combination with polyethylene glycol its durability and its ability to get through membranes could be increased, leading to promising results in an animal model with rabbits regarding a prolonged spinal cord ischemia tolerance. In a primate model, these effects could not be observed. In case of intrathecal papaverine,a randomized clinical trial is available.In this study, intrathecal papaverine in combination with CSF and active cooling of the patient showed neuroprotective effects. Logistic regression analysis revealed that the combination of all three measures significantly reduced the risk of spinal cord injury.

Figure 1 ｜Techniques and methods of spinal cord surveillance and protection.

Conclusion:A multitude of techniques and methods of spinal cord surveillance and protection was developed within the last decades of open and endovascular TAAA surgery. CSF drain placement, which is well established so far as part of the standard protocol of open and endovascular TAAA repair so far, has been scrutinized recently regarding a potentially underestimated risk of complications and a doubted SCIprophylactic effect in fields of endovascular TAAA repair. Yet, new techniques, such as NIRS and spinal-cord specific biomarkers were not able to proof their impact as less invasive possibilities of spinal cord function monitoring. As a perspective, pre-operative interventional occlusion of intercostal arteries leading to an improved spinal cord network as well as scoring systems for SCI risk assessment during TAAA repair may lead to a decreased necessity of invasive spinal cord protection measurements.

Alexander Gombert*, Florian Simon

Department of Vascular Surgery University Hospital RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany (Gombert A)Department of Vascular and Endovascular Surgery, Heinrich-Heine-University of Düsseldorf,Düsseldorf, Germany (Simon F)

*Correspondence to:Alexander Gombert, MD,agombert@ukaachen.de.

https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5743-8554(Florian Simon)

Received:April 14, 2020

Peer review started:April 16, 2020

Accepted:May 23, 2020

Published online:October 9, 2020

https://doi.org/10.4103/1673-5374.295328

How to cite this article:Gombert A, Simon F (2021)Strategies to prevent and detect intraoperative spinal cord ischemia during complex aortic surgery:from drainages and biomarkers. Neural Regen Res 16(4):678-679.

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