School of Foreign Languages,Xi’an Shiyou University,Xi’an,China Email:lovelife68@126.com

[Abstract]As cultural embodiments of language,social address terms play an increasingly important role in modern society.The use of social address terms is related to the power and status relations,formality of the situation,seniority and familiarity of both parties in communication.This paper compares classifications of Russian and Chinese social address terms,and analyzes potential differences between them from socio-cultural perspectives.It was found that Russians tend to use general and fictive kinship address terms,while Chinese prefer to use general and profession/title address terms,which reflect the differences in cultural values and national characters of the two nationalities.

[Keywords]social address terms;contrastive study;classification;reasons

INTRODUCTION

As common communicative signals and channels,address terms often reflect the social relationship and status between speakers,which embodies the“power”and“status”relations involved in communication(Jia,2003).The use of address terms is affected by social structure,traditional ethics,blood and clan relationship,occupation,gender,age,education level,and various other factors in communication(Meng,2004).

Modern Chinese Dictionarydefines address terms as terms to greet each other in face to face communication,e.g.,“tongzhi”(comrade),“gege”(elder brother).“Face to face”stipulates the way and occasion of communication.In practical use,address terms are not just confined to“face to face”occasions.Many scholars also include greetings in letters and the appellatives in monologues as address terms(Zhu,1992).Therefore,address terms can be both faceto-face and non-face-to-face.

As an important part of daily communication,address terms play an increasingly important role in modern society.This paper investigates classifications of Russian and Chinese address terms,and analyzes potential differences between them from socio-cultural perspectives.

CLASSIFICATIONS OF RUSSIAN AND CHINESE ADDRESS TERMS

Address language is common in almost all languages,and it often embodies characteristics of various aspects of different languages.However,due to the different geographic locations and thinking habits,address terms differ considerably in terms of their quantities and varieties.

According to their functions,address terms could be classified into kinship address terms and social address terms.This paper focuses on a contrastive analysis of Russian and Chinese social address terms.Social address terms mainly refer to the appellative language people use to refer to each other according to their identity and social status in daily communication.Based on the communicative relationship,social address terms could further be classified into three different categories,including general address terms,profession/title address terms and fictive kinship address terms(Wang,2000,p.71).

General address terms

General address terms are generic terms to refer to a specific group or class of people.Along with the change of social system and the times,the connotations and applications of some address terms may also change,which therefore have been labeled with marks of specific times(Chu,2013).

General address terms in Russian

There are many general address terms in Russian,includingтоварищ(comrade),гражданин(male citizen),гражданка(female citizen),молодой человек(lad),девушка(lady),друзья(friends),коллеги(colleagues),мальчики(boy),девочки(girl),мужчина(men),женщинаI(women),дамы и господа(ladies and gentle?men),etc.In terms of actual usage,some of these terms have either died out with the changes of social and political systems,or are rarely used by people,while new terms have mushroomed and are being used more and more widely in verbal communication.

In recent years,the use of original gender-differentiating words,such asмужчина(men)andженщина(women),has aroused strong disputes in Russia.Some scholars consider it pure insult to use such primitive language to categorize people,therefore should be discarded.Nevertheless,such usage has been accepted by the majority of average Russian people,and are considered appropriate terms to address unfamiliar middle-aged and elderly peo?ple.Russian scholarКолесов(1998)argued that the Russian word женщина(women)could refer to middle-aged and elderly women of all categories while the primary gender-indicating meaning has conceded to the second place,thus it has become a commonly used neutral address term in daily life.

The use ofмужчина(men)andженщина(women)as address terms reflects the equal social status be?tween men and women in modern Russian society.However,these two address terms are not accepted by all.Many scholars,linguists in particular,have always opposed to the use of these two words as address terms.They could not accept being addressed asмужчина(men)orженщина(women).Therefore,when they do not know how to ad?dress other people properly,they simply use such polite language asпростите(sorry)andизвините(excuse me)to take the place of address terms.Thus,they not only show their respect,but also craftily avoid such controver?sial address terms.

The development of language is restricted by social systems and cultural conventions.Their development or ex?tinction are directly related to the communicative needs of the society.

General address terms in Chinese

There are also many general address terms in Chinese,includingtongshi(comrades),shifu(masters),xiansheng(Mr.),xiaojie(ladies),nvshi(Miss),taitai(Mrs.),etc.The semantic evolution of the word“tongzhi”(comrades)has seen duality(Zhu,1992).On the one hand,it is used to address strangers,people with unknown titles,or unfamiliar people when it is semantically unmarked;on the other hand,it also reflects an equal relationship between the two parties of the conversation when it is semantically marked.Therefore,“tongzhi”(comrades)is commonly used as a neutral address term to refer to unknown government officials.

Though“tongzhi”(comrades)is still being used to address government officials and soldiers,the applicability of“tongzhi”(comrades)has been narrowed since some words that denote administrative positions have replaced it,such as secretary,director,Minister,and so on.In addition,“tongzhi”(comrades)had also been used to refer to homosexual people in recent years.

The word“shifu”(master)was originally used to refer to workers by intellectuals,which is a reflection of the cultural background of the times.However,the applicability of this word has been more and more restricted in actual use.Presently,“shifu”(master)has been frequently used to address technical workers and craftsmen.

Profession/title address terms

Profession/title address terms are generally related to the professions,social titles or academic titles of addressees.People often use profession/title address terms to address each other on formal occasions.

Profession/title address terms in Russian

There are relatively few profession/title address terms for face-to-face communication in Russian.Only a few profession-denoting words such as“доктор”(doctor)and“отец”(god father)could be used as profession/title address terms,which is closely related to the unique cultural traditions and conventions of the Russian people.

The subordinates generally use“given name + paternal name”to address their superiors to show respect and politeness,regardless of the age or social status of the addressees.This kind of address term is omnipotent and is the most commonly used address term in communication.Nevertheless,people also use“Mr./Miss + Professional title”for etiquette considerations on formal occasions,e.g.,господин председатель(Mr.Chairman).The address term“given name + paternal name”is universal,even when addressing Russian president.Whether it is ordinary Rus?sian people or senior government officials,they address President Putin as“Владимир Владимирович”(Vladi?mir Vladimirovich)or“господин президент”(Mr.President),both of which are considered appropriate and po?lite.

In daily conversations,subordinates also use“шеф”(head)to address their superiors,which suggests the infor?mal nature of communication and the intimate and harmonious relationship between the two parties.Military rank ti?tles are often used among soldiers,which can stand on their own or used together with“товарищ”(comrade).

However,under certain circumstances,address terms denoting academic titles,professional titles and/or positions can be used to express tones of dissatisfaction,irony,contempt,or threat towards the addressees.

Profession/title address terms in Chinese

Address terms related to occupation and titles have been well-established in Chinese,which is closely related to the hierarchical relationship in Chinese culture.

Profession address terms refer to terms that people address each other with reference to the occupation of the addressee or those professions that enjoy high status in society.The high-status professions generally refer to those involving mental work,e.g.,teachers,doctors,engineers,manager,coaches,lawyers,journalists and so on.On the other hand,people just use“shifu”(master)to address all people in the technical/labor work occupations,such as drivers,cooks,hairdressers,electricians,lathe workers,instead of addressing them with their specific professions.

Title address terms refer to practices of addressing others with their official titles,academic titles,and/or military rank titles.

Chinese official titles mainly includezhuxi(Chairman),mishuzhang(Secretary),zongli(Prime Minister),buzhang(Minister),shengzhang(Governor),zhuren(Director),kezhang(Section Chief),xiaozhang(Principal),zongcai(President),etc.

Academic title address terms are generally used to address senior intellectuals,such asjiaoshou(Professors),yanjiuyuan(researchers),gaogong(senior engineers),etc.Nevertheless,junior and intermediate titles are generally not used to address other people.One thing worth noting is that Chinese people seldom address people with terms that imply“deputy/vice”status,which might be related to the cultural and psychological conceptualizations.Only“boshi”(Doctor)is used to address others among all the academic titles,whereas“shuoshi”(Master),“xueshi”(Bachelor),and“boshihou”(post-doctor)are not used as address terms at all.

There are many words to refer to military ranks in Chinese,such asyuanshuai(Marshal),jiangjun(General),shangjiang(Admiral),zhongjiang(Lieutenant General),shaojiang(Major General),daxiao(Senior Colonel),zhongxiao(colonel),shaoxiao(major),shangwei(captain),zhongwei(Lieutenant),second lieutenant(shaowei),zhongshi(Sergeant),xiashi(Corporal),etc.When used as address terms,those above the colonel levels are generally called“shouzhang”(chief)by the lower levels,and the superiors normally call the lower levels as“rank+comrade”,e.g.,“shaoxiao tongzhi”(comrade major).

Fictive Kinship Address Terms

Fictive kinship address terms refer to the practice of using kinship terms to address each other even though there is no such kinship between them.In daily communication,people often use kinship terms to address each other according to age and seniority,which are often used among relatives.These fictive kinship address terms are widely used among various relationships such as neighborhood,colleagues,classmates,friends and so on.The use of such address terms can make the addressees feel respected and cordial,thus will narrow the distance between the two parties of communication,and it generally achieves good communication effect.

Fictive Kinship Address Terms in Russian

Fictive Kinship Address Terms in Russian are generally used to address non-relative people,and they mainly includeбабушка(grandma),дедушка(grandpa),мать(mother),мамаша(aunt),отец(father),папаша(grandpa),дочка(girl),сынок(son),браток(brother),сестрица(sister),дядя(uncle),тетя(aunt)as well as their various suffixes.

“Бабушка”(grandma)and“дедушка”(grandpa)are generally used to address the elderly who live in the countryside or those who have moved to the city,but still appear quite aboriginal in speech and appearance.“Отец”(father),“папаша”(father),“мать”(mother)and“мамаша”(aunt)are mainly used by people with little education and low social status to address the elderly.The use of such terms indicate that the addressers’grassroots identity and status in society.If the two parties share similar social status,then the communication will run smoothly.If not,the addressee need to intentionally select more secular and easier words to adapt to the circumstances,or else the communication will be severely held up.Similarly,“браток”(brother),“сестрица”(sister)and“сестренка”(elder sister)are also used by those people with little education and low social status to address the juniors.“Дядя”(uncle)and“тетя”(aunt)are often used by pre-school or low-grade students to address unfamiliar adults.Besides,these two terms are also used to address the middle-aged or the elderly in the service industry,such as cleaners,guards,etc.

Fictive Kinship Address Terms in Chinese

The fictive kinship address terms in Chinese are very complicated.Seniority in the family or clan plays a key role in interpersonal relationship.The Chinese language has various address terms to refer to people of different generations.When addressing each other,people will consider seniority status with the addressees.If the addressee of the older generation is apparently older than the addresser’s father,he/she would be addressed asdabo(uncle)/dama(aunt); on the contrary,if the addressee of the older generation looks younger than the addresser’s father,he/she would be addressed asshushu(uncle)/a’yi(aunt).

Other fictive kinship terms that address seniors include:daye(grandpa),bofu(uncle),dashu(uncle),laonainai(grandma),bomu(aunt)etc.

REASONS FOR THE DIFFERENCES

Social address terms reflect the mainstream culture,social values and conventions of a society,as well as its changes and developments.The differences in the use of social address terms in Russian and Chinese could be attributed to many factors,among which two are of essential prominence.

Cultural values

Cultural values are holistic judgments people make on the basis of their senses and cognition,which reflect their critical thinking and cultural orientation.

When addressing others with their professional title,Chinese people not only show the respect for the addressees,but also extend a kind of flattery.This could be attributed to the effect of social hierarchy deeply rooted in the mindset of people.

However,few profession/title address terms are used in Russian.This could be related to the effect of the equality-oriented ideology of western society.Plus,Russian people have better ways of addressing,i.e.,“given name+paternal name”.In the views of Russians,title is only the external embodiment of one’s ability,which could be very unstable and non-sustainable.However,the name is accompanied with people for life,therefore,is more important than the title.

National characteristics

If language reflects the character of a nation(and it does),then the character of the Russian people is particularly diversified,rich and contradictory.And all these characteristics are embodied in language(Лихачов,2003).

The vast land of Russia has cultivated a nation of passion,enthusiasm,clear love and hate.Russian people attach great importance to their sincere quality,and they are willing to show their true feelings in public.The widespread use of term of endearment in Russian reflects the externally passionate characteristics of the Russian people.

In contrast,Chinese traditional culture takes Confucian ethics as its core value,which lays great importance on ethical relations and moral norms.Under the influence of this traditional culture,Chinese people are more introverted and reserved,and they generally do not verbally show their feelings in daily communication.They prefer to keep the romantic relation to themselves instead of announcing it to the public.People rarely address each other in intimate terms such as“dear”or“baby”.

CONCLUSION

Social address terms entail extremely rich social and cultural connotations,which might be related to the power or status relations,formal or informal communication,seniority,and familiarity of both parties involved.There are distinct socio-cultural preferences in the use of social address terms between Russian and Chinese.Russians tend to use general and fictive kinship address terms,while Chinese prefer to use general and profession/title address terms,which reflect the huge differences in cultural values and national characters of the two nationalities.

Acknowledgements

The research is sponsored by the“Youth’s Science and Technology Innovation Fund”of Xi’an Shiyou University:Cultural and Pragmatic Study of Russian Adress Terms(2014QN008),“2019 Higher Education Scientific Research Project”of Shaanxi Provincial Higher Education Academy(XGH19126),and“Special Projects of Foreign Language Discipline of Major Theoretical and Practical Research Projects in Shaanxi Social Sciences”(20WY-221).