文/吳平

冰川、冰蓋融化，海平面上升，極端天氣加劇，生物多樣性減少，近海生態(tài)系統(tǒng)崩潰，新發(fā)傳染病增加……這些災難性后果正在倒逼人類直面氣候治理問題。近年來，國際社會在氣候變化治理方面取得了一定成效。氣候治理的實踐和經(jīng)驗不僅有助于各國取得更多共識，形成更大合力，同時也為我國生態(tài)治理提供了可資借鑒的啟示。

Melting glaciers and ice sheets, rising sea levels, worsening extreme weather, decreasing biodiversity, deteriorating coastal ecosystems and increasing new infectious diseases, etc.These possible disasters are too serious to arouse attention to global climate governance. In recent years, the international community has achieved certain results in global climate governance, of which the practice and the experience help governments reach more consensus and form greater synergy. Meanwhile, it also provides useful reference to China’s ecological governance.

全球氣候逐漸變暖導致冰川融化

全球氣候治理的進展

1988年，聯(lián)合國環(huán)境規(guī)劃署和世界氣象組織成立了氣候變化政府間會議（IPCC），氣候變化的國際合作自此拉開了序幕。1992年《聯(lián)合國氣候框架公約》（以下簡稱《公約》）通過，這是世界上第一個“全面控制二氧化碳等溫室氣體排放以應對氣候變化”的國際公約，為氣候治理的國際合作奠定了法律基礎。1997年，149個國家和地區(qū)通過的《京都議定書》規(guī)定，2008—2012年主要工業(yè)發(fā)達國家的溫室氣體排放量要在1990年的基礎上平均減少5.2%，這是人類歷史上首次以法規(guī)的形式限制溫室氣體排放。

2015年的巴黎會議上，《公約》近200個締約方一致同意達成新的全球協(xié)議，為2020年后全球應對氣候變化的行動作出安排。2016年4月22日，在《巴黎協(xié)定》開放簽署首日，共有175個國家簽署了這一協(xié)定，并于11月4日正式生效?！栋屠鑵f(xié)定》作為不足一年便迅速在全球得到批準并生效的多邊協(xié)定，

堪稱前所未有。至此，1992年《公約》、1997年《京都議定書》以及2015年《巴黎協(xié)定》這三個人類歷史上應對氣候變化里程碑式的國際法律文本共同形成了2020年后全球氣候治理的格局。減少溫室氣體排放、應對氣候變化已成為全球共識，包括發(fā)展中大國在內(nèi)的主要國家都在積極地推進實質(zhì)性減排。

Progress of global climate governance

In 1988, IPCC (Intergovernment Panel on Climate Change),set up by the United Nations Environment Programme and the World Meteorological Organization, was a prologue to international cooperation. In 1992, UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change) was adopted. This is the first international convention on overall controlling the emissions of greenhouse gas emissions so as to cope with climate change in the world, and it lays the legal foundation for international cooperation in climate governance. In 1997,Kyoto Protocol passed by 149 countries and regions stipulated that during 2008-2012, major industrialized countries should achieve a 5.2% reduction of greenhouse gas emissions based on those in 1990. It was the first time that greenhouse gas emission had been restricted with the aid of a regulation.

At the Paris Conference in 2015, nearly 200 Parties to UNFCCC agreed to a new global protocol and made arrangements for global climate governance beyond 2020. On April 22, 2016, 175 countries signed the Paris Agreement, which entered into force from 4 November. It is unprecedented for a multilateral agreement to be ratif i ed and implemented in less than one year like Paris Agreement. So far, the three international legal documents—UNFCCC in 1992, Kyoto Protocol in 1997, and Paris Agreement in 2015—were milestones of climate governance, and formed a new pattern. Consensus has been reached on reducing greenhouse gas emissions and governing global climate. Major countries including developing countries are actively promoting emission reduction.

Experience from global climate governance

The biggest feature of climate governance is the diversif i cation of the main body and the potential interests. Compared to the EU, which is proactive out of low abatement costs, the United States, whose economy is held back by energy conservation and emission reduction, has always resisted substantial emission reduction. For the sake of maintaining the oil industry, the oil powers in the Middle East also oppose substantial reductions. However, under the threat of rising sea level, island countries in less developed countries have been strongly demanding strict control of greenhouse gas emissions to ensure national security.

At the international level, climate governance rules have been risen with UNFCCC, developed with Kyoto Protocol,and flourished with Paris Agreement. Their entry into force marks the institutionalization and standardization of climate governance rules. International organizations, including the Group of Twenty (G20), BRIC, and the Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) have reached a consensus and strengthened cooperation. With UNFCCC in orientation and multilateral, bilateral, regional, and local mechanisms in bloom, climate governance is crowned with success. At the national level, more and more governments bring measures and mechanisms into their own legal and policy systems.The Global Climate Legislation Research Report, released in June 2015, shows that 75 countries and the EU enacted legislation or policy frameworks to mitigate climate change. Systematic governance rules have become the powerful guarantee for maximizing the interests of all countries.

Improve climate governance with carbon trading system. In 1997, with the establishment of Kyoto Protocol, carbon emission rights became an international commodity and could be channeled and marketed through the market. The system defines the property rights of the atmosphere. In order to ensure that benef i ciaries are responsible, it controls the total amounts of omissions on the market, set permits for global emissions and allocate them in the world in accordance with certain standards. This mechanism on the one hand adds the costs of excessive emissions to encourage energysaving emission reduction, and it on the other hand adjusts the emission quotas among countries flexibly, so that more developed countries with much emissions bear more funds for governance. It is a typical manifestation for effectively promoting the reduction of global emission.

Promote climate governance with emissions reduction model of INDC (Intended Nationally Determined Contributions).The Warsaw Conference in 2013 requested Parties to initiate their post-2020 determined contributions. The Paris Agreement explicitly calls for the establishment of national independent contribution mechanism, that is, countries can propose their own independent contribution targets according to their own national conditions, and adjust measures and methods to deal with climate change. Different from the top-down emission reduction model advocated in Kyoto Protocol, the model of INDC determines the responsibilities from bottom up. In addition, the developed countries should continue to take the lead in reducing emissions and strengthen the financial support, technical support and talents, thus helping developing countries adopt to climate change and avoiding some developed countries from shirking responsibilities.

全球氣候治理的經(jīng)驗

氣候治理最大的特點在于主體多元化及背后的利益多元化。比如相比因減排成本較低而積極主動的歐盟而言，囿于節(jié)能減排對經(jīng)濟發(fā)展有所阻礙的美國歷來抵觸實質(zhì)性減排。中東的石油大國出于維護石油產(chǎn)業(yè)的考慮，也反對實質(zhì)性減排。而在海平面上升的威脅之下，欠發(fā)達國家中的島國卻一直強烈要求嚴格控制溫室氣體排放以確保國家安全。

在國際層面，氣候治理規(guī)則因《公約》而起，隨《京都議定書》而興，至《巴黎協(xié)定》而盛，它們的生效標志著氣候治理規(guī)則的制度化和規(guī)范化。包括二十國集團（G20）、金磚五國、氣候與清潔空氣聯(lián)盟（CCAC）在內(nèi)的國際組織紛紛達成共識并加強合作，氣候治理領域已逐步形成了以《公約》為主，其他小多邊、雙邊、區(qū)域、地方等機制百花齊放的局面。在國家層面，越來越多的國家將應對行動和機制納入自身法律和政策體系當中。2015年6月發(fā)布的《全球氣候法規(guī)研究報告》顯示，75個國家和歐盟已制定立法或政策框架來減緩氣候變化。體系化的治理規(guī)則已成為各國共同實現(xiàn)利益最大化的有力保障。

國家自主貢獻（INDC）減排模式靈活推進氣候治理。2013年的華沙大會要求各締約方啟動2020年后的自主貢獻預案。《巴黎協(xié)定》則明確要求建立國家自主貢獻機制，即各國可以根據(jù)自身國情來提出各自的自主貢獻目標，調(diào)整應對氣候變化的措施和方法。與《京都協(xié)定書》“自上而下”的強制減排模式不同，國家自主貢獻模式是“自下而上”地確定各國減排責任。除此之外，發(fā)達國家仍需繼續(xù)帶頭減排，并加強對發(fā)展中國家的資金、技術和能力建設支持，幫助后者適應氣候變化，從而避免某些發(fā)達國家利用自主貢獻而逃避減排責任的情形。

碳排放交易制度有效助力氣候治理。1997年，隨著《京都議定書》的訂立，碳排放權正式成為國際商品并可通過市場進行流動與配置。該制度對大氣進行了產(chǎn)權界定，通過控制市場上可排放的總量，為全球排放設定許可并依照一定標準在世界各國進行分配，確?！矮@益者擔責”。這一機制一方面為超量排放設立成本，鼓勵節(jié)能減排，另一方面靈活調(diào)整各國之間的排放配額，讓碳排放較多的發(fā)達國家承擔更多的治理經(jīng)費，是市場機制有效推動全球減排的典型體現(xiàn)。