He Yimin*
The Silk Road was an important corridor for east-west economic and cultural exchanges across Eurasia in ancient times.In general, the Northern Silk Road was mostly associated with such terms as Chang’an, Hexi Corridor, desert and prairie while the Maritime Silk Road easily evokes Quanzhou, Guangzhou and Fuzhou.Not many people realize that Chengdu is in fact also among the most important cities along the Silk Road.To some extent, without Chengdu, whether the Silk Road deserves its name would be in doubt.After all, the Silk Road derived its name from a major cargo transported on it: Silk.Chengdu was also the most important city of silk production and the very manufacturing center for a high-end silk product, “Sichuan brocade.” Chengdu has been closely associated with the Northern Silk Road.Also, it is the starting point of the Southern Silk Road and is at the intersection of the Northern Silk Road, the Southern Silk Road, the Yangtze River EconomicBelt and the Maritime Silk Road.Therefore, in ancient times, it was China’s hub for both internal and external communications.At present, Chengdu is on its fourth rise, becoming a national central city and representing the brilliant prosperity of the Han and Tang Dynasties.With the Belt and Road Initiative upgraded to a national strategy, it is now of great academic and realistic significance to re-examine the relationship between Chengdu and the Silk Road and Chengdu’s role and status in the history of China.
Chengdu is located deep in the hinterland of China and surrounded by high mountains.The huge altitude difference between the bottom of the Sichuan Basin and its surrounding mountains has forged an enclosed geographic environment,making a journey to the outside world very challenging.This was particularly true in ancient times, when humanity’s production capacity was quite low and their ability to conquer nature was far from satisfactory.Back then, geographic environment played a vital role in economic and transport development.The enclosed environment meant a huge transport challenge for Chengdu.But it did not prevent people there from having economic and cultural exchanges with the outside world.It is fair to say that the enclosed environment,instead of being a barrier, enhanced ancient locals’determination and courage to develop internally and expand externally.Early in the pre-Qin era,the Sichuan Basin already had close contact with Hanzhong and Guanzhong in the north, Gansu and Qinghai in the northwest, Yunnan in the south and Hunan, Jiangsu and Zhejiang in the east.And there were already many twisted roads connecting the Sichuan Basin to the outside world.It was this seemingly isolated geographic landscape that made Chengdu the intersection of the three transport corridors and economic belts.
From a geographic perspective, Chengdu is in the west of the Sichuan Basin and is deep in the hinterland of Eurasia.Being 1,600 kilometers away from the East China Sea and 1,090 kilometers away from the South China Sea, it is a typical inland city.In spite of being located at the bottom of the Sichuan Basin, Chengdu has a unique geographic advantage,i.e.being at the intersection of the Northern Silk Road, the Southern Silk Road and the Yangtze River Economic Belt and at the core of all inland cities in western China.In addition to that, Chengdu is also at the intersection of central China, the southwest, the northwest, as well as the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River.It has almost the same distance from all major cities in central and western China (He, 2016).Thus it can be seenthat Chengdu is of strategic significance to China’s political, economic and cultural development.Being at the intersection of three major economic belts enabled Chengdu to become a hub for both internal and external communications.Such a rare geographical advantage could not be found in any of the other big cities in ancient China.By contrast,Xi’an, though being the capital of many dynasties and a key city along the Northern Silk Road in Chinese history, was prevented by the Qinling Mountains from direct access to the Southern Silk Road and the Yangtze River Economic Belt.Besides, major metropolises such as Luoyang and Wan were all to the north of the Qinling Mountains and the Huai River, which means none of them enjoyed such favorable transport conditions as Chengdu.There was a similar picture during the Tang and Song dynasties, in which none of the important commercial and industrial cities like Kaifeng, Jianye (currently Nanjing), Yangzhou,Hangzhou and Guangzhou enjoyed such a geographical advantage as the intersection of three economic and cultural belts.The exceptional geographical location enabled Chengdu to have multi-aspect communications with the outside world.The ancient Shu Culture was represented by Sanxingdui and Jinsha sites, where a range of bronze ware, jade articles and gold ware were unearthed.Those cultural relics without exception reveal an integration of diversified cultures.During the Han and Tang Dynasties, the growing prosperity supported China’s further development.In this context, Chengdu kept enhancing its economic and cultural communications with the Northern Silk Road, the Southern Silk Road and the Yangtze River Basin, becoming a national central city.In the Han Dynasty, Chengdu ranked among the“top five cities” while in the Tang Dynasty it was said to be “only second to Yangzhou nationwide.”Although Chengdu is situated in an inland basin, its exceptionally favorable location has made it a center and bridge in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River to promote internal and external exchanges.This historically renowned city, whose site and name have remained unchanged for thousands of years, has kept developing and injecting vigor and vitality into itself.
There are multiple reasons for Chengdu’s rise as a world-famous metropolis in the Han and Tang dynasties.Among them are three very important ones; the smooth transport via the Northern Silk Road, the sustained development of the Southern Silk Road, and the economic prosperity and interaction along the Yangtze River Basin.It is precisely this exceptionally favorable geographical location that facilitated Chengdu’s three rises respectively in the pre-Qin era, the Han Dynasty and the Tang Dynasty.
The term “Silk Road” was originally proposed by German geologist Ferdinand von Richthofen in 1877.It refers to a network of main land routes across Eurasia, which served as corridors for China to carry out economic and cultural exchangeswith countries in Asia and Europe from the 2nd Century BC to the 13th─14th Century.The “Silk Road” derived its name from the fact that silk was the primary bulk stock transported via those routes(Xu, 2007).Normally, Chang’an is regarded as the starting point of China’s Silk Road trade journey.However, the Guanzhong Plain, the region where Chang’an was located, did not abound in silk, let alone quality silk goods.In fact, all silk products carried from Chang’an to the Western Regions and the rest of Asia and Europe were invariably from other regions of China, and Chengdu was a key supplier of silk goods via the Northern Silk Road.
China is the first country to breed silkworms,reel silk and produce silk fabrics.However, this does not mean that silk was produced across the nation.Legend has it that Sichuan, with Chengdu being the center, was the hometown of Leizu, who was said to be the inventor of silk.Sichuan is also an important silk production base of China.Back in the era of the ancient Shu Kingdom, Chengdu had already developed an effective silk production process and system (Wu, 1984; Peng, 2010; Zhang,2013).In the Han Dynasty, Chengdu had highly developed brocade-weaving industry, which became an important source of tax revenue for the imperial court.After the Qin Kingdom annexed the Shu Kingdom, it established a brocade office in Chengdu responsible for brocade management.The Han Dynasty kept the brocade office system for professional management purposes and further built an “official brocade-weaving base” (Jinguan Cheng) for centralized production.Since Sichuan brocade became an article of tribute, a large amount was first transported to Chang’an and then distributed and was well received across China.At that time, Sichuan brocade was a symbol of wealth and a much sought after luxury among the upper class.During the Han Dynasty, Sichuan brocade was also awarded by the imperial court to meritorious officials in thousands of bolts at a time.According to Ji Xianlin (1955), “Silk products like satin, tough silk and brocade can also serve as a money equivalent in exchange for goods” and “are simultaneously in circulation with money.” Back then, Sichuan’s silk-weaving industry, which was primarily based in Chengdu, outperformed those of other regions both in terms of output and quality.As Book of the Later Han recorded, “The weaving industry (of Sichuan) tops the world” (Fan, 1965,p.535), which was high praise for the boom of local textile production (including silk production).Indeed, Sichuan brocade had already reached a very high technical level in the Han Dynasty.As Yang Xiong wrote in his Shu Du Fu (Poem of Chengdu),“Local weavers have developed a variety of brocade in different patterns.Among them are Qiu, Xuan,Fei and Xu, with light violate edge and black body.Those beautiful brocade patterns are frequently updated.” This fully demonstrates the rich variety and beautiful design of Sichuan brocade.Chengdu was the primary base for Sichuan brocade production.As Zuo Si wrote in his version of Shu Du Fu, “In the neighborhood, there were hundreds of weaving workshops where weavers were busy at their looms weaving brocade.The finished brocade looked bright and colorful and after a first wash in the river it became even more gorgeous.” This household-name verse gives a vivid depiction of the booming brocade industry in Chengdu and the exquisite craft and high quality of Sichuan brocade.From the Qin and Han dynasties to the Sui and Tang Dynasties, Shu brocade remained the primary brocade of China.That is why Shan Qianzhi, a scholar in the Liu-Song Kingdom of the Southern Dynasties (420─589 ), wrote in hisRecord of Danyang that, “In history, there has been no brocade production in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, making Chengdu the top supplier of brocade.” During the Eastern Han Dynasty,Chengdu topped the world in terms of brocadeweaving technique.And this can be exemplified by a loom model of that period, which was unearthed at Laoguan Mountain, Chengdu years ago.The restored model attests that during that period, the brocade-weaving technique of Chengdu was already at a well-planned stage and that Sichuan brocade was unrivaled both in terms of quality and pattern.During the Three Kingdoms period, regions to the north of the Qinling Mountains and Huai River widely experienced a temperature decline, which severely affected the sericulture of Shandong,Henan, etc.Worse still, regions like Xiangyi(current Sui county, Henan province) suffered such a huge blow that their silk-weaving industry began to decline.As the largest silk production base,Chengdu maintained its monopoly of silk supply both at home and abroad until the Sui and Tang Dynasties.Zhu Qiqian, a scholar in the Republic of China period, wrote in his Silk Embroidery Notes,“In the Wei and Jin Dynasties, Sichuan brocade remained popular and for multiple times risked the status of brocade made in Xiangyi.Consequently,Xiangyi turned to focus on producing Zhicheng(a type of luxury silk) and left brocade production exclusively to Sichuan” (Wu, 1984). Contemporary silk archaeologist Wu Min held, “Chengdu is among the earliest brocade producers in China,since the Wei and Jin Dynasties, and brocade weaving has been an exclusive business of Chengdu.” “From the Northern and Southern Dynasties, through the Sui Dynasty, to the early Tang Dynasty, Chengdu had been the only region nationwide capable of supplying brocade for trade”(Wu, 1984).In the Sui and Tang Dynasties, the silkweaving industry of Chengdu experienced even more significant development.According to the Annals of Geography─ Book of Sui, Chengdu “is known for its superb craftsmanship, ranking among the top silk and brocade producers nationwide.”In his Book of Sichuan Brocade, Fei Zhu depicted a similar picture, “Sichuan is renowned for its quality brocade; Chengdu is also known as Jinguan(official administration of brocade production);local river Zhuojin (meaning brocade-washing)derived its name from being the river in which to wash brocade.” In short, the production of Sichuan brocade reached a new height and was approaching perfection during that period.Later, under the reign of Emperor Zhongzong of the Tang Dynasty, “green Dansiluo Dress” (a type of very light and graceful silk dress) presented by Yizhou (Chengdu) became an indicator of Chengdu’s already highly advanced silk-weaving technique.That dress featured“patterns of flowers and birds embroidered with gold threads as fine as human hair; only when you get a closer look can you see the eyes, nose, mouth and beak of those millet-sized birds on the dress.”During the era of the Later Shu State, weavers in Chengdu could produce a 3-fu-wide seamless quilt cover with one shuttle.Such a technique was called“Yuanbiao” by people at that time.Also, there were a variety of silk products, among which were seven articles of tributes, i.e.Juan, Jiao, Luo, Dansiluo,Xiu, GaoshuShanduan and Shuangzhen (Li, 1992,p.71). In addition, Chengdu already had a huge silk-weaving industry.Under the reign of Emperor Xuanzong in the Tang Dynasty, Yizhou (Chengdu)rendered 100,000 bolts of silk fabrics to the capital at a time.The silk products produced by Chengdu and other areas in Sichuan could satisfy the needs of local officials and civilians and at the same time be exported to foreign land, particularly the Western Regions and other places of Eurasia via the northern Silk Road.
Over the past decades, many silk items produced inChengdu were unearthed at multiple archaeological sites in Xinjiang and along the Northern Silk Road.For example, at the archaeological site of AshtarKhara-khoja ancient tombs in Turpan,Xinjiang, a batch of exquisite silk products were successively unearthed.It has been proved through textual research that those silk products were Sichuan brocade (Wu, 1984). Moreover,archaeologists also discovered a range of exquisite silk products, most of which were Sichuan brocade,in the Tibetan tombs (including the Tuyuhun descendants’ tombs) of the Tang Dynasty at Reshui township and Xarag township, Dulan county,Haixi autonomous prefecture, Qinghai province.These Sichuan brocade products can be traced back to a period from the late Northern dynasties to the flourishing age of the Tang Dynasty (Xu,2007).In 1995 an archaeological team made up of Chinese and Japanese scholars, discovered a piece of brocade embroidered with the characters of“simultaneous appearance of five stars in the east sky is a propitious sign for the ‘Middle Kingdom’”at the No.1 tomb of Niya Site in Xinjiang.It was proved through textual research that these brocade products were Sichuan brocade made during the Three Kingdoms period.Prof.Duan Yu, Director of the Ba-Shu Culture Research Center, Sichuan Normal University, conducted in-depth research into the Northern Silk Road and discovered that“the Northern Silk Road during and after the Han Dynasty stretched westward across the Western Region, via Central and Western Asia, to Antioch of the Byzantine Empire (i.e.City of Angu as recorded in the “Profile of Xirong” in the Chronicals of the Wei Kingdom)” that “the Northern Silk Road was primarily for cross-border trade of silk products,most of which were from Sichuan” and that “a batch of silk products unearthed from the AshtarKharakhoja ancient tombs in Turpan, Xinjiang were mostly Sichuan brocade products made in the Han Dynasty, the Northern and Southern Dynasties, and the Tang Dynasty.” “For example, at the Xinjiang Museum, there was a ‘dragon-patterned’ silk remnant of the Tang Dynasty, with its back bearing the words of ‘a(chǎn) bolt of fine brocade from Shuangliu county in the first year of Jingyun, recorded by official clerk Shi Yu in August.’ So far, this silk remnant remains a rare unearthed silk product specifying the place of origin.In addition, Sichuan brocade and satin products, such as ‘Banbi (halfsleeved gown) made in Yizhou (Chengdu)’ and‘Xiaolian (white tough silk) made in Zizhou (Santai county, Sichuan),’ along with their corresponding prices for high, middle and low grades, were also in the catalogue of the Tang documents unearthed at Turpan.These records truthfully reflect the trade of Sichuan brocade in the Western Regions” (Wang &Wang, 2015). According to Prof.Wang Yi (2013),Director of the Chengdu Museum and Chengdu Municipal Cultural Relics & Archeology Research Institute, “Numerous Sichuan brocade products have already been unearthed along the Silk Road and the excavation of Sichuan brocade-weaving tools at Chengdu this time highlights Chengdu’s crucial role in the Silk Road development and proves it to be a starting point of the Silk Road in the south.” “The Silk Road stretches across Eurasia and as a unique traded product, silk is its most important symbol while Sichuan brocade is its key supporting item.” During the Han and Tang dynasties, Chengdu was arguably China’s primary base for silk production, faithfully supplying silk products for trade via the Northern Silk Road for over one thousand years.
From the Han Dynasty through the Tang Dynasty, to the Song Dynasty, Sichuan-Shaanxi transport arteries and the He Nan section were the primary routes for Chengdu to access the Northern Silk Road.
2.2.1 Chengdu─Xi’an─the Northern Silk Road
There were already land transport routes linking Chengdu to the Guanzhong area during the pre-Qin era.Though bordering each other, Sichuan and Shaanxi are separated by the natural barriers of the Qinling and Daba Mountains and therefore were tormented by exceptionally challenging road transport.Nevertheless, from the pre-Qin era to the Han and Tang dynasties, conforming to local landscape and hydrological characteristics, ancient people, through their wisdom, built multiple roads between Sichuan and Shaanxi.Among them, the Jinniu Path, the Baoxie Path and the Old Path (Jialing Path) were the main arteries and remained in service for the longest time.“Relying on the three arteries between Sichuan and Shaanxi, a dense transport network for trade was developed” by Chinese ancestors (Li, 2004).During the flourishing age of the Han and Tang Dynasties, when social stability and regular trading was the norm, a variety of goods, including silk products, were delivered from Chengdu, via the Jinniu Path, the Baoxie Path or the Jialing Path (the Old Path) to the Guanzhong area, and then via the Hexi Corridor to the Western Regions, and on to the rest of Eurasia.Foreign products and cultures were also imported to thehinterland of the Ba-Shu region (currently Sichuan and Chongqing) in southwest China, particularly to Chengdu, where they were further distributed to other places in this region.
Sichuan brocade
2.2.2 Chengdu─the He Nan section─the Northern Silk Road
Since Zhang Qian’s “unprecedented journey”to the Western Regions, the Central Plain dynasties had maintained their control and dominance of the Hexi Corridor and the Western Regions and the exchanges between the Central Plains and the Western Regions mainly relied on the Guanzhong-Hexi Corridor, the Western Regions route, an artery of the Northern Silk Road.①I(mǎi)t is generally accepted that the eastern section of the Northern Silk Road started from Chang’an / Luoyang and extended westwards along the Wei River to Tianshui, Gansu; then along Hexi Corridor and via four counties (including Zhangye) to the final destination, Shule in the Western Regions.However, there was another commercial passage from the hinterland of China to the Western Regions, i.e.He Nan section (also known as Qinghai section), which is overlooked by many researchers.During that period,Sichuan brocade products made in Chengdu were mainly transported to the Guanzhong area via the Sichuan-Shaanxi routes, and then to Xi’an, where they were further delivered via the Hexi Corridor to the Western Regions and the rest of Eurasia.It is noteworthy that in the Han Dynasty, apart from the silk exported to the Western Regions by merchants,emperors of China also regularly awarded regimes in the Western Regions silk products, including Sichuan brocade, which became an important source of silk there.
In the late Western Jin Dynasty, with the outbreak of serious unrest in the Central Plains,the traditional silk trade route, which started from Chang’an via the Hexi Corridor to the Western Regions, was severely disrupted.At the beginning of the 4th Century, the Former Liang Regime(301—376), out of political, economic and military considerations, turned to operate another transport artery, which bypassed Guanzhong, via current Qinghai, Gansu and the northwest of Sichuan to the hinterland of southwest China.After the fall of the Former Liang Regime, new rulers of this area (Tuyuhun) also attached great importance to the development and operation of this transport artery in a bid to alleviate the political and military pressure from multiple regimes in north China,enhance its status on the political stage of China and import advanced Han culture and products like Sichuan brocade from the Southern dynasties.Rulers of Tuyuhun used to have the title “He Nan King” conferred by the Liu-Song Regime of the Southern Dynasties, and Tuyuhun was therefore also called “He Nan State.” Given that, the transport route was known as the “He Nan section” (Chen,1996). It started from Fuqi, capital of Tuyuhun,via Guide and Tongren to Gannan, and then ran through the Zoige grassland to Songpan, down the Min River, via Mao county and Guan county to Chengdu.Thus, in the Northern and Southern Dynasties, “the He Nan section” gradually developed into a new Silk Road, which started from Chengdu and ran westwards via Fuqi in Qinghai to Shanshan and Qiemo, and then to many more regions across Eurasia.According to the “Annals of Prefectures and Counties” in Book of the Southern Qi Dynasty, Vol.15, “(Chengdu is)linked to Ruirui and He Nan in the west just like Wuwei and Zhangye during the Han Dynasty, it can access the Western Regions.” Some researchers concluded, “Three distinct characteristics of this route of the Silk Road: First, the northern part of the route bypassed the jurisdiction of the Central Plains dynasties and extended across the frontier regions controlled by the minority regimes; Second, almost the whole route ran against the Min River; Third,living along the route were mostly ethnic minorities such as Jiandi, Canling, Ranmalong, Baima andDengzhi.” When the Western Regions were under effective control of the Han and Tang dynasties,the Northern Silk Road could be rather clear and smooth and Chengdu was linked to the Northern Silk Road towards the “outside world” via Chang’an or Luoyang.During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the traditional Chang’an-Hexi Corridor,the Western Regions route was blocked.Under such circumstances, the He Nan section, which bypassed the Hexi Corridor, began to play an important role.“It became the only route (for Southwest China and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River)to communicate with Tuyuhun and other regimes in the Western Regions and access Rouran in the north.Twisted and remote as it was, this route was very safe and reliable” (Xu, 2007).It is exactly via the He Nan section that Sichuan brocade made in Chengdu was transported to Tuyuhun and Rouran(Turk), where it was further distributed by local merchants to a wider range of the Western Regions and Eurasia.During this period, in addition to Sichuan brocade made in Chengdu, a variety of goods from across the Southern Dynasties were also carried to Chengdu, from which they were transported via the He Nan section and then the Northern Silk Road to the rest of Eurasia.Likewise,commodities from regions across Eurasia were mostly imported to the hinterland of China via this route.More specifically, they were first transported to Chengdu, where they were further distributed to places across southwest China and regions south of the Yangtze River.During the era of the Wei,Jin, Northern and Southern Dynasties, the He Nan section, with Chengdu as its hub, was a major transport route linking the hinterland of China to the Western Regions.
2.2.3 In addition to merchants, diplomatic missions were also active along the Silk Road, and Chengdu played an important role in facilitating the communications between regimes in the southeast and minority regimes in the northwest during the Northern and Southern Dynasties.
When the Chang’an-Hexi Corridor was clear and smooth to the Western Regions the diplomatic exchanges between the Central Plain dynasties and foreign countries were mainly conducted in cities like Chang’an and Luoyang.During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, however, the traditional artery was interrupted.Even so, through routes via Chengdu to the He Nan section, regimes in the northwest (such as the Former Liang and the“He Nan Kingdom”) managed to maintain close political and economic exchanges with the Southern Dynasties while the latter also sent multiple diplomatic missions to the northwest.Related descriptions can be found in many historical records.For example, according to the “Profile of Rouran Khaganate” (Ruirui tribe) in the Book of the Southern Qi Dynasty, Vol.59, “Ruirui people often come to Yizhou (Chengdu) via the He Nan section.”“In the third year of Shengming of the Southern Song Dynasty (479), Xiao Daocheng (soon to be the first emperor of the next dynasty Southern Qi)”administered the country and sent Wang Hongfan,then General of Valiant Cavalry, to Ruirui in an attempt to unite the latter to crusade against the Northern Wei Dynasty.” There is a clear description of Wang Hongfan’s journey to the Western Regions via the He Nan section in Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance Vol.129, which goes as follows,“(Wang) set out from Sichuan, via Tuyuhun and across the Western Regions to the final destination.”With Chengdu being the hub, diplomatic missions of the Southern Dynasties and regimes in the northwest traveled either northward or southward to conduct political, diplomatic and economic activities.For hundreds of years, Chengdu remained an important hub linking the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River in the southeast to the He Nan section in the northwest.
Through investigation of the Northern Silk Road, it was determined that the Silk Road was not a single route, but a huge network of intertwined transport routes.This network covered key cities of ancient China such as Chang’an, Luoyang,Dunhuang, cities in the Western Regions, and Chengdu─a central city in the southwest.During the Han and Tang Dynasties, as a major supplier of silk products, Chengdu facilitated the silk trade via the Silk Road.In times of peace, its silk products were first transported to Chang’an via the Sichuan-Shaanxi path and then to the Western Regions where they were sold by local merchants to the rest of the world.Meanwhile, foreign products and cultures from across Eurasia were imported to Chengdu via this transport network, and then distributed to the Chengdu Plain and further introduced to places across southwest China and the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River.During the war-torn era of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, with the Hexi Corridor being interrupted, Chengdu still managed to maintain close economic and cultural exchanges with the Western Regions and beyond via the He Nan section.As the starting point of the south extension of the Silk Road, Chengdu enabled the continuation of the Silk Road trade during that period.
The Southern Silk Road was known as the“Sichuan-Sindhu route,” which started from Chengdu, via today’s Yunnan and Myanmarto South Asian states like Sindhu (India).With a total length of over 2,000 km, this important land route had already been in service prior to Zhang Qian’s journey to the Western Regions under the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty.It was a key passage of international commerce and trade in ancient China.The formation of the “Sichuan-Sindhu route” can be traced back to the era of the Sanxingdui and Shierqiao cultures over 3,000 years ago.In the early days, silk made in Sichuan was transported and sold via the “Sichuan-Sindhu route”to South Asia and was called “Sichuan cloth” by the Assamese of India.Archaeological discoveries of the 20th Century testified that there were economic and cultural exchanges between Chengdu and states in South Asia and Southeast Asia in the early stage of Chinese history.From the 1980s to the 1990s,archaeologists discovered many cultural relics at Sanxingdui site (a civilization of the Shang and Zhou dynasties) near Chengdu.Among those relics are many seashells and ivories, which are proved to be items from abroad.Some researchers believe these seashells and ivories might be imported via the “Sichuan-Sindhu route” from India because “the two items were primarily found in Southwest Asia and along the Indian Ocean coast” (Huo, 1989).There were also many tooth shells unearthed at the Sanxingdui site.“Relevant biological studies have proved that such tooth shells only lived in warm sea waters near India and Myanmar (Huang, 2002,p.283).In addition, striking similarities are found between the jade concave blades, wheel jades and jade tablets unearthed at the Dong Son cultural heritage site in north Vietnam and those unearthed at the Sanxingdui and Jinsha sites.Examples like this indicate that the ancient Shu Kingdom was in contact with foreign lands via the “Sichuan-Sindhu route” in the early stage of Chinese history.At present, it is generally accepted by the academic circles that the “Sichuan-Sindhu route” had already been developed and enjoyed substantial commerce and trade flow prior to the Western Han Dynasty.After the Qin Kingdom annexed the Shu Kingdom,Li Bing, Qin State’s third governor of Shu, led locals to “build Bo path and channel Wenjing River” and began to develop this “barbarian southwest.” Afterthe unification of China, Qin Shi Huang (First Emperor of Qin) further enhanced the governance of the “barbarian southwest” and sent “General Chang’e to renovate the Wuchi Path.” The Wuchi Path was an important passage linking Chengdu to Yunnan and it enabled Chengdu to carry out economic exchanges with Yunnan, India and other regions.According to the Records of the Grand Historian, Zhang Qian(1997, pp.3159─3160) wrote in his memorial to Emperor Wu, “When I was in Daxia Kingdom, I saw Shu cloth (cloth made in Sichuan) and Qiong bamboo rods (bamboo rods made in Qionglai, Sichuan); I asked local merchants where they got them.The merchants of Daxia said they had carried them back from Sindhu (India).Sindhu is several thousand li away southeast of Daxia and has similar social customs with the latter—Therefore, I assume Daxia is about 12,000—13,000 li away southwest of our Han Empire.Given that Sindhu is several thousand li away southeast of Daxia and has commodities made in Sichuan, it should be not that far away from Sichuan.” Based on Zhang Qian’s report, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty soon sent a secret envoy to Sichuan and Yunnan for field investigation,intending to build a trade route starting from Chengdu via Yunnan to India.Due to the boycott of local power in Yunnan, this plan failed and was not put into practice.Still, this experience enriched the Han Dynasty’s knowledge that “over one thousand li away (west of Yunnan), there is a country called Dianyue, where people ride elephants” and that“some smugglers of products made in Sichuan may have been there”(Wen, 1980). It has been proved through textual research that Dianyue is in fact Kamarupa of Assam in east India.This demonstrates that Sichuan had trade contacts with South Asian countries long before the Han Dynasty and that Sichuan merchants were very active during that period.Under the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, the Central Government kept enhancing transport development in the southwest.According to the “Biography of Emperor Wu” in the Book of Han, Emperor Wu successively ordered Tang Meng and Sima Xiangru to “develop the barbarian southwest and build over 1,000 li roads by paving ways and tunneling hills to expand the Ba-Shu area.” He also “mobilized Ba-Shu civilians to build the Nanyi Path (a path in the barbarian south),dispatched tens of thousands of people to flatten the precipitous Yanmen Pass” and “ordered the opening of the Xi’nanyi Path (a path in the barbarian southwest).” Thus, “Sima Changqing (i.e.Sima Xiangru) basically pacified Xiyi (the barbarian west), having the heads of Qiong, Ze, Ran, Mang and Siyu acknowledge allegiance to the Han emperor.He also removed the previous passes for land expansion to the Mo and Ruo Rivers in the west and to Zangke in the south, opened the Lingguan Pass and built bridges over the Sun River to access Qiongdou”(Sima Qian, 1997,pp.3048─3051). In the second year of Yuanfeng(109BC), Emperor Wu once again sent troops from Chengdu, via two routes (eastward and westward)to Yunnan to “attack the tribes boycotting Han envoys in Kunming.” This southern expedition turned out to be a great victory, after which the Han Dynasty successively established many prefectures such as Zangke, Shenli, Wenshan and Wudu in the southwest.Thanks to this, the Sichuan-Sindhu Path,starting from Chengdu, was directly connected to Erhai Lake.Emperor Wu also established the two counties of Xitang (currently Baoshan, Yunnan) and Buwei (current Shidian, Yunnan) and opened the Bo’nan Path (from Erhai Lake to the China-Myanmar border), which enabled both officials and civilians to travel via “Bo’nan Mountain, Lancang River and Shixi River” to the border strip of Myanmar.In the Eastern Han Dynasty, to take the southwest and the abovementioned outbound corridorunder effective control, the Central Government established Yongchang prefecture (currently Baoshan, Yunnan) in the 12th year of Yongping (69).After that, the three arteries of Bo’nan Path, Xiyi Path (path in the barbarian west) and Nanyi Path were connected into one smooth passage.The Chinese section of the Sichuan-Sindhu Path was transformed from a civilian-developed trade route to an imperial route under the management of the Central Government.Such transformation significantly improved the conditions of Chengdu-Xi’nanyi transport and promoted commodity exchanges in cities along the route.In 1938, dozens of Wuzhu coins were discovered in abandoned graves in a walnut orchard at the foot of Baofeng Mountain, which is some eight li away west of downtown Tengchong(Li, 1941).In March 1979,archaeologists discovered a jar of ancient coins(containing 13 double-Wuzhu coins and 332“Daquan Wushi” and “Dabu Huangqian” coins) at a little island in the east of Erhai Lake, Dali.Such officially cast coins of the Han Dynasty found in the west and southwest of Yunnan strongly proved the trade exchanges between the Central Plains and Yunnan in the Han Dynasty, the existence of the Sichuan-Sindhu Path and the active commodity exchange along the route.The Tang Dynasty witnessed continual development of the Sichuan-Sindhu Path, which can be exemplified by the journey of Pyu commission’s music team to Chang’an.This team set out along the Sichuan-Sindhu Path, “via Yangmie city to Yongchang prefecture─traveled across the Nu River (Salween River) to Zhuge Liang city (Longling)─headed southward for Le city─ entered the Kingdom of Pyu, via the territories of eight tribes (e.g.Wangong)to Xili city (700 li)─reached the capital of Pyu─climbed across the Black Mountain to Kamarupa in east India─advanced towards the northwest direction and crossed the River Brahmaputra to Pundavardhana─advanced towards the southwest to the Kajughira to the south of theGanges River in east India─headed westward for Magadha”(Wu, 1984, pp.68─70).Later, the music team arrived at Dali, from which it headed for Chang’an via Chengdu.
As proved by many relevant documents and archaeological discoveries, the development of the Southern Silk Road had a direct impact on the Central Government’s strategy of developing the southwest.When the Central Government enhanced its reign, the smooth transport along the Southern Silk Road was ensured; when the Central Government was on the wane, the transport and trade along the Southern Silk Road were hampered.The Central Government strove to extend and enhance the Southern Silk Road for political purposes, as well as economic profits.Through the development of the Southern Silk Road, the Central Government wanted to expand its territory, consolidate its power and stabilize the border situation.Since the Han Dynasty, the Central Governments of later dynasties actively introduced a variety of measures to ensure the Southern Silk Road’s smooth transport and development.As a metropolis in the southwest, Chengdu was regarded by rulers of the Central Plains dynasties as a bridgehead to govern the ethnic minority regions in the southwest.The development of Chengdu empowered those Central Governments to enhance their control and govern of the ethnic minority regions in the southwest, develop southwest borderland, promote exchanges between the southwest and the Central Plains, and stabilize the border situation.
In addition to the Central Government and local governments at all levels, merchants, being the subjects of trading, also played a significant role in the development of the Southern Silk Road.Prior to the formation of the Southern Silk Road, driven by business interest, numerous Sichuan/Yunnan-based merchants had had frequent trade contacts via this trade route.Having witnessed the vicissitudes of time, the Southern Silk Road, supported by profitdriven merchants, remained accessible and busy.For example, there was a time when the Eastern Han Dynasty suffered a severe challenge from the Huns (Xiongnu) in the north.In such a context, the Central Government had to “focus on resisting the attack from the Huns” and was too busy to care about the situation in the south.Consequently, the frontier junctures in Sichuan were closed by the government.Even so, local merchants, driven by profits, often “secretly smuggled local items, such as Zuo horse, Bo boy and yak abroad, generating significant wealth in the Ba-Shu area”(Sima Qian,1997, pp.2992-2993).As recorded in the Records of the Three Kingdoms, “Panyue State, also known as Hanyue Kingdom, is several thousand li away southeast of India and is close to Yi (Sichuan);Panyue people have similar build with people in the Central Plains; Sichuan merchants may have been there.”①From “Profile of Xirong--Chronicles of Wei Kingdom,” Pei Songzhi’s Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms, Vol.30 by Chen Shou.In fact, the Southern Silk Road, with Chengdu being the starting point, has never been interrupted ever since the Han Dynasty.Thanks to this, Sichuan was able to maintain sustained exchange of goods and cultures with Yunnan and Southeast Asian countries.Generations of official and civil delegates “exported Han nationality’s advanced agricultural tools, cultivation techniques,mulberry planting experience and farming expertise to current China-Myanmar border regions, from which they were further spread to south Myanmar”(He, 2008, p.387).Thus, the Southern Silk Road had a wide-reaching effect on the economic and social development of Southeast Asia.
The Southern Silk Road is not just a trade route,but also a cultural exchange route.For example,Taoism, a religious or philosophical tradition of Chinese origin, was exported from Chengdu via the Sichuan-Sindhu Path to South Asia and then had a huge influence on Buddhist Tantrism in India.①Regarding the Chinese Taoism’s influence on Buddhist Tantrism in India, Zhang Yi made a detailed analysis in the essay “On the Historical and Geographical Context of Buddhist Tantrism’s Formation” (included in the book Studies in the Ancient Silk Road in Southwest China, by Wu Jialun & Wang Yuxiang, Sichuan University Press, 1990: pp 88-95).Similarly, Wen Jiang also did an in-depth exploration of this topic in his essay the “Influence of Taoism on India” (included in Studies in the Ancient Silk Road in Southwest China, by Wu Jialun & Wang Yuxiang, Sichuan University Press, 1990: pp 78-87).On the other hand, during the Eastern Han Dynasty,the art of animal statue from Western Asia and Central Asia also had a profound influence on the art of large stone beast statuary, which was popular in Sichuan, particularly in Chengdu.And this can be well exemplified by significant numbers of“gallant horse” brick statues and stone statues of the Eastern Han Dynasty unearthed in Chengdu,Ya’an, etc.According to some scholars, “the launch of the Southern Silk Road, to a large extent, is closely associated to a grand historical setting─Emperor Wu’s development of the frontier regions in the southwest.” “Through exchanges between the Han nationality and other highly mobile ethnic minorities such as the Qiangdi, Maoniu and Nanyi,different cultures were spread to a wide range within a very short period of time” (Huo, 2012,pp.305-323).
Chengdu is in the Chengdu Plain, which is at the middle reaches of the Min River, a major tributary of the Yangtze River.In ancient times,by a local dense network of rivers, Chengdu could easily establish economic and cultural ties via the Min River with cities along the Yangtze River.It was indirectly linked to Hunan and Hubei and could also exchange needed goods with the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, or even overseas markets via the Maritime Silk Road.For this reason, the assessment of Chengdu’s contribution as a hub and center for ancient China’s external exchanges should be based on its inter-regional exchanges along the Yangtze River eastward and external exchanges via the Northern and Southern Silk Road.
So far, there has been substantial research into the Southern Silk Road starting from Chengdu.And it is universally accepted that Chengdu maintained its trade contacts with India and the rest of South Asia via the Southern Silk Road.In recent years,Chengdu’s connection with the Northern Silk Road has been confirmed by the academic circles.During the Han and Tang dynasties, Chengdu was at the intersection of a wide-reaching transport network and was China’s gateway to the outside world.However, scant academic attention has been paid to Chengdu’s inter-regional communications along the Yangtze River, its influence in the Yangtze River Basin and its connection with the Maritime Silk Road in Chinese history.Based on existing research findings, this paper further explores Chengdu’s influence in the Yangtze River Basin and its connection with east China and the Maritime Silk Road.
Back to the pre-Qin era, Chengdu had close economic and cultural contacts with the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River.There is no shortage of evidence about that.For example,striking similarities have been found between the jade-cong items unearthed at the Jinsha site and those unearthed at the Liangzhu site (in Hangzhou)in terms of style and technique.Moreover, Bie Ling,founder of the Kaiming Dynasty, was originally from the middle reaches of the Yangtze River.As a major west-east water artery of China, the Yangtze River played a very important role in the transport development of ancient China.Through the Yangtze River shipping, Sichuan, which is in the upper reaches, exported a variety of local agricultural and industrial products to the outside world and exchanged needed goods with other places in the Yangtze River Basin.During the Han and Tang dynasties, Chengdu remained a political, economic and cultural center in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River and was also a starting point of the Yangtze River shipping route.Therefore, it was a major player in the Yangtze River Basin.
Restricted by the disadvantageous conditions of the Sichuan Basin, Chengdu suffered inconvenient land transportation.Yet at the same time, it enjoyed very favorable water transportation.Chengdu is next to the Min River, which since ancient times has been a waterway for cargo transport.The Min River flows into the Yangtze River, which runs through the Three Gorges and Kuimen to the middle and lower reaches.According to the Strategies of the Warring States, “To the west of the Qin State lies the Ba-Shu area, where there are large ships carrying grain from Wenshan down the Min River (and then the Yangtze River) to Ying (currently Jingzhou), a city over 3,000 li away.”①“Strategy of Chu” (Part 1), Strategies of the Warring States (Vol.14).Qilu Press, 2005: p155.“During the high flow period in summer, troops in Sichuan can take boats down the Min River and then along the Yangtze River, and reach Ying five days later.②“Strategy of Yan” (Part 2), Strategies of the Warring States (Vol.30).Qilu Press, 2005: p340.” As early as in the Kaiming Dynasty, Chengdu locals already exhibited a high degree of open-mindedness.Overcoming the challenge of an enclosed geographic environment, they took the initiative to expand outward primarily by traveling down the Min River.After taking office as the governor of Shu, Li Bing set about taming the Min River.He led the construction of Dujiang Weir, which divided the Min River into two, i.e.the Nei River (the inner river) and the Wai River (the outer river).The Nei River ran past the outskirt of Chengdu towards the east and met the Qingyi River at Jiazhou (currently Leshan); then the enlarged river eventually met the Jinsha River at Yibin.Chengdu already enjoyed very convenient water transportation in ancient times.According to the “Annals of Shu” in the Chronicles of Huayang, the Min River “is separated into two tributaries, both of which carry boats and ships.”Since the Western Han Dynasty, local officials of all dynasties regarded the Min River regulation as a key political task and further repaired and renovated the Dujiang Weir, making the Min River a clear and unobstructed channel from Chengdu.Chengdu’s role as the departure of water transport journey via the Min River to the Yangtze River were repeatedly proved by various military and economic activities during and after the pre-Qin era.With the Qin State extinguishing Ba-Shu, “Qin general Sima Cuo and Zhang Ruo began to build ships and hoard grains in Chengdu and other places in Sichuan; then led an army of 100,000 soldiers to crusade against the Chu State via the Min River and the Yangtze River at a speed of 300 li per day.There were tens of thousands of sailing ships fully loaded with 6 million pipefuls of rice, as well as soldiers” (Chang, 1958).With the outbreak of war in the late Qin Dynasty, Liu Bang, founder of the Han Dynasty, took the Chengdu Plain as a strategic rear area, which supported the frontline with needed goods made in Sichuan.For example, in the fifthyear under the reign of Emperor Gaozu (the first emperor) of the Han Dynasty (202 BC), led by Xiao He, “tens of thousands of ships” loaded with army provisions set out from Sichuan down the Min River to support the frontline (Chang, 1958).Under the reign of Emperor Wu, there were floods in the regions south of the Yangtze River.To tackle such a challenge, Emperor Wu issued two imperial decrees to allocate “grains from Ba-Shu area” to help relieve the disaster there.Subsequently, over 10,000 dan of grains were shipped via the Min River and the Yangtze River to the flood stricken area for disaster relief.During the Three Kingdoms period, when Fei Yi was about to leave Chengdu for the Kingdom of Wu, Zhuge Liang came to see him off at Wanli Bridge, where he said, “this place marks the beginning of a 10,000 li journey.” It is exactly via the Yangtze River that the Kingdoms of Wu and Shu maintained various economic and cultural exchanges, as well as trade, in particular the silk trade between the two states which was booming.After the Western Jin conquered the Han Kingdom, the imperial court designated Wang Jun as the governor of Yizhou, who led the building of large ships in Chengdu and cities along the Min River.In 280, Wan Jun led an army made up of tens of thousands of soldiers to advance from Chengdu via Jiangzhou (Chongqing) and Xiakou(Wuchang) eastward for Jianye (Nanjing) by water.They traveled far faster than five land forces sent by Emperor Wu of the Western Jin Dynasty and forced Sun Hao, the Emperor of the Wu Kingdom,to accept the irretrievable loss and begged to surrender.According to some historical records,Wang Jun’s water force from Sichuan was equipped with “an unprecedented fleet of large ships” (Fang,1974). During the Sui and Tang Dynasties, with the operation of the Grand Canal, water transport was on the rise.Chengdu managed to establish direct economic and trade links with the Grand Canal via the Yangtze River.Because of this, it enhanced convenient communications with the rest of the country.Chengdu was able to “introduce marine products via waterways and integrate the fashion of the Wu Kingdom into local culture” Also, it had close economic ties with “prefectures such as Jiaozhou, Guangzhou, Jinzhou, Yangzhou and Yuezhou.” And numerous “merchants engaged in water transport of grains to the capital were coming and going” at the port of the Jin River outside the city of Chengdu.Through “a convoy of ships,”Chengdu was in close contact with the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, playing a crucial role in the development of the national economy.
From the pre-Qin era, through the Tang Dynasty to the Song Dynasty, the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, with Chengdu being the hub,remained “an important tax revenue source and a strategic position for the Central Government”(Liu,1996).As Gu Zuyu pointed out in his Essentials of Historical Geography, “Sichuan has never been a place to obstinately cling to; it’s better for one to take Chengdu as a base for bigger political power, be it the reign of a nation or the control of a region, while obstinately clinging to it by virtue of its precipitous typography will inevitably lead to subjugation.” For the Central Government, Chengdu was of great political and military significance and its developed economy had a far-reaching influence on the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River.Boosting handicraft and commerce development, Chengdu was very important to the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River.In the Han and Tang Dynasties, the Min River-Yangtze River waterway became a crucial channel of commercial transport connecting Jiannan Xichuan to the Yangtze-Huai region.Du Fu, a great poet of the Tang Dynasty depicted it in his poem as follows, “Through the waterway connecting Wu(the lower reaches of the Yangtze River) and Shu(Sichuan), salt and linen are transported to needed places by ships― since ancient times, ‘Shu linen’and ‘Wu salt’ have been exchanged through this waterway, on which large ships fully loaded with cargo were sailing as fast as wind.” Du Mu, another poet of the Tang Dynasty also mentioned in his work that “ships loaded with Sichuan brocade are heading for Yangzhou.” And Li Bai even claimed, “It only takes one day to sail a thousand li (from Baidi City) to Jiangling (currently Jingzhou).” During the Tang and Song Dynasties, Chengdu already enjoyed a very developed agriculture with rich products.Though located in west Sichuan, Chengdu was among the major grain suppliers to the Guangzhong area.Ships loaded with grains sailed along the rivers to Yangzhou, then turned into the Grand Canal and eventually headed for the northwest.Forcibly promoted by rulers of successive dynasties,Chengdu established close and extensive ties with major cities along the Yangtze River Basin via the Min River-Yangtze River waterway.In this context,the silk industry in regions south of the Yangtze River was significantly influenced by Sichuan.As the birthplace of Sichuan brocade, Chengdu is a cradle of Chinese silk culture and a primary base for silk production.Being exquisite, splendid and light, Sichuan brocade was popular worldwide.This product, along with its production technique,was spread to the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, contributing to the rise of other categories such as Nanjing brocade.In fact, Sichuan brocade made in the Warring States period has been unearthed by archaeologists from Han tombs in Changsha (Hunan) and Jiangling (Hubei).Shan Qianzhi, a scholar in the Liu-Song Kingdom of the Southern Dynasties (420 ─ 589), wrote in his Record of Danyang that, “In history, there has been no brocade production in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, making Chengdu the top supplier of brocade.” During the Three Kingdoms period, Sichuan brocade was exclusively used by the Shu Kingdom for external trade.Through direct and indirect trade, Sichuan brocade was sold in the Wei Kingdom and the Wu Kingdom; and it became the norm that “the Wei people bought Sichuan brocade from the Shu Kingdom; while the Wu Kingdom supported the latter to develop its brocade industry”(Shan, 1961). And this exchange of goods was exactly facilitated by the Min River-Yangtze River waterway starting from Chengdu.In the mid-Tang Dynasty, Chengdu and Yangzhou become the top two most prosperous metropolises nationwide, with the former being located at the upper reaches of the Yangtze River and the latter at the lower reaches.Chengdu’s economic and cultural exchanges with the lower reaches of the Yangtze River came to its peak during the Tang and Song Dynasties and then began to decline in the Yuan Dynasty due to chaos and wars.Following that, Chengdu witnessed an abrupt drop in national status.
The Chinese civilization features “diversity in unity.” For thousands of years, the Chinese people of all nationalities have worked hard to make the most out of their local natural landscape and cultural environment, and formed an accepted cultural system with universality adaptive to their development level of productive force.In general,the Chinese civilization can be divided into a range of cultural systems, such as the Yangtze River Basin Culture, the Yellow River Basin Culture,the Mongolian Prairie Culture, the Tibetan Plateau Culture and the Western Regions Culture.The Shu Culture, to which Chengdu belongs, is a key part of the Yangtze River Basin Culture.①This Chengducentered Shu Culture has maintained exchangeswith those in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River, enabling mutual influence,assimilation and complementation.In addition to the Chu Culture and the Wu Culture as written in many historical records, Chengdu also had exchanges with other cultures in the Yangtze River Basin, which as evidenced by a number of cultural relics unearthed at archeological sites in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River.Examples like this include the exquisite lacquerware which was unearthed at the Mawangdui Site of Han Tombs in Changsha and was originally made in Chengdu.Also, a batch of beautiful lacquerware works unearthed from the tomb of Zhu Ran (a prominent figure of the Wu during the Three Kingdoms period) at the Yu Mountain, Ma’an shan,Anhui.At the bottom of those works there were such inscriptions as “Quality product manufactured in Sichuan” and “Quality product made in Sichuan.”Rich in natural resources, Chengdu had a lot to offer for external trade, including world-renowned Sichuan brocade, lacquerware, linen, tea and other major bulk commodities.Sichuan, with Chengdu as its core, is the earliest area of tea cultivation and a hub for spreading the tea culture (Guan, 2009).Around the Western Han Dynasty, tea cultivation was introduced to present-day Hubei and Hunan provinces from the Ba-Shu area.In the Eastern Han Dynasty or the Three Kingdoms period, tea cultivation was further introduced to the lower reaches of the Yangtze River from the Jingchu area.The dissemination and development of Shu’s tea culture and other cultures in the eastern part of China and even foreign countries was carried out along the Yangtze River.Shu Culture showed vigorous vitality in the Yangtze River Basin and interacted with Chu Culture and Wuyue Culture in the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River.For this reason, the study on exchange and fusion of Shu culture and other cultures may shed new light on the position of Chengdu and its contributions to the Yangtze River Basin.
A lot of references have shown the connection between Chengdu and the Yangtze River Basin during the Han and Tang dynasties.Based on this,it should be confirmed whether Chengdu once had a connection to the Maritime Silk Road, and is it possible that Sichuan merchants once had directly or indirectly conducted overseas trade?At present, there are sources showing that it is possible for Chengdu to have established links with the Maritime Silk Road and overseas regions via the Yangtze River Economic Belt.This can be speculated from the relationships between Sichuan and the main ports along the Maritime Silk Road,transportation in Sichuan, and Sichuan merchants.
4.3.1 The connection between Chengdu and the main ports along the Maritime Silk Road
To determine the relationship between Sichuan and the Maritime Silk Road, the links between Sichuan and the main ports along the Maritime Silk Road need to be investigated, namely whether Sichuan once served as the economic hinterland of these main ports.Only by connecting to the main ports can Chengdu establish direct or indirect ties with overseas countries.Thus, the relationship between Chengdu and the main ports such as Xuwen Port and Guangzhou during the Han and Tang Dynasties needs to be determined.
The Maritime Silk Road served as a maritimechannel for trade and cultural exchanges between ancient China, Eurasia and other parts of the world.An international trade network was formed by a number of ports on the East China Sea and the South China Sea.Some studies indicate that the Maritime Silk Road began to take shape in the Qin and Han dynasties, developed from the Three Kingdoms to Sui Dynasty, prospered during the Tang and Song Dynasties, and transformed during the Ming and Qing Dynasties.The seaway starting from the South China Sea is the oldest known sea route.In the Qin and Han Dynasties, Xuwen Ancient Port, the port of departure of the Maritime Silk Road on the South China Sea was located in the south of Leizhou Peninsula, the southern most tip of the Chinese mainland.This area had witnessed human activities in the very early days and it became an important port for China’s maritime trade in the pre-Qin era.It was first established as a county in the 6th year of Dingyuan of the Han Dynasty, and Xuwen Port began to thrive and finally grew into an important port for foreign trade in the Han Dynasty.In addition,Hepu Port in the northeast of Beibu Bay started to conduct foreign trade in the pre-Qin era.The completion of the Lingqu Canal in the Qin Dynasty promoted the establishment of economic and cultural ties between Central China and the Beibu Bay region, which facilitated the rising of Hepu Port in the Han Dynasty and helped it gradually become a major port for trading with Southeast Asian countries.In the Eastern Han Dynasty, Guangzhou grew up and took the place of the Xuwen and Hepu ports as a new main port along the Maritime Silk Road on the South China Sea.During the late Song and the Yuan Dynasty, Quanzhou became the largest port for foreign trade in China.Maritime trade and intercourse with foreign countries were
banned in the early Ming Dynasty.Due to troubles caused by Japanese pirates, the Port of Quanzhou gradually declined while Zhangzhou Yuegang Port began to thrive and replaced it as the new main port.According to the change of the main ports along the Maritime Silk Road, it can be seen that China’s maritime trade tended to transfer from the South China Sea to the East China Sea, which was closely related to China’s politics and economy in different periods.At present, it is hard to find direct historical references to prove that Chengdu had established economic ties with these ports.However, it can be traced through archaeological evacuation of the main ports along the Maritime Silk Road.Nevertheless, archaeological evacuation can only provide disconnected resources other than systematic, massive evidence.According to archaeological survey and previous research, the Ba-Shu area managed to connect to the South China Sea coast in the Han Dynasty.A lacquered flat jug was unearthed in a Han tomb discovered in Sanyuanli, Guangzhou in 1960.The first lacquered flat jug was discovered during an archaeological excavation in Qingchuan, Sichuan.In the Han Dynasty, Chengdu was a major manufacturing hub of lacquerware and the shape of lacquered flat jugs was very common for lacquerware produced in Sichuan.Therefore, some researchers hold that the lacquered flat jug unearthed at the Han tomb in Sanyuanli was manufactured according to the shape of Sichuan’s lacquerware and it might be manufactured under the influence of lacquerware products of the Ba-Shu region or the Chu state(the manufacturing of lacquerware in the Chu state was affected by the Ba-Shu area) after the construction of roads leading to Western Regions in the Qin Dynasty(Bian, 2014).Meanwhile,studies on the Southern Silk Road also indicate that there was a transport route featuring both land and water transportation that lead to Vietnam in the Han Dynasty.The route links Sichuan with Yunnan and reaches Dali.It also leads to Ha Noi along the Honghe River and provides access to other Southeast Asian countries via Ha Noi.Some researchers believe that it is the oldest waterway connecting Sichuan, Yunnan and the Indochinese Peninsula (Qu, 2011).Therefore, it is clear that Chengdu had begun to establish economic and cultural ties with the South China Sea area during the Han Dynasty and connected to overseas regions via the Maritime Silk Road.
Shu’s tea culture
4.3.2 Sichuan merchants and the Maritime Silk Road
During the Han and Tang dynasties,commodities from Sichuan were prevalent throughout China, signifying Sichuan merchants’capacity for long-distance trade.They piloted outbound communications by loading cargo on ships along the Yangtze River, in direct or indirect manner sending the commodities to different ports and then to all the corners of China and even the world.According to a study of the Sichuan merchants who were active along the Southern and Northern Silk Roads and in big cities, as early as the early Western Han Dynasty, “Sichuan merchants had been widely distributed across Chinese big cities like Chang’an and Guangzhou, and Sichuan commodities had been transported as far as the Western Regions, Central Asia, India, Southeast Asia and Northeast Asia.Sichuan merchants also headed the smuggling trade in South China,especially the smuggling trade between the hinterland of China, the barbarian southwest and the Namied Kingdom”(Zhou, 2011).The “Biographies of Merchants” in the Records of the Grand Historian rated two Sichuan merchants—Mr.Zhuo and Cheng Zheng—as the head of the top 12 wealthy merchants in the Western Han Dynasty, fully reflecting the high status and active involvement of Sichuan merchants in China at the time, who hadbeen able to bring Sichuan products to the whole country through direct or relay-style indirect trade.Relics of Sichuan commodities found along the Southern and Northern Silk Roads have shown that Sichuan merchants played an un-ignorable role in Chengdu’s outbound communications during the Han and Tang dynasties.It is also possible they might have expanded along the Yangtze River to the east and even beyond.
During the Han and Tang dynasties, Chengdu had already built close trade ties with the regions of the Yangtze River Valley, its products transported to the entire country, its culture radiating to and converging into the civilization of the Yangtze River Valley.Sichuan merchants, already capable of long-distance trade, left their feet along the busy Silk Road and Yangtze River.Chengdu,located in a basin and enclosed by mountains was almost geographical inaccessibility yet turned into everything other than conservatism.The ingenious Sichuan merchants, undaunted by the hostile mountains, valleys and cliffs, hacked out several trade routes that carried Sichuan products northward through the Qinling and Daba Mountains, eastward to the Three Gorges, westward through the Longmen Mountains and southward to and beyond Yunnan.Chengdu never ceased being a key hub that deeply influenced the whole of Sichuan and even the whole of China.And therefore, it became home to Jiaozi, the earliest type of paper money in the world.
In ancient China, Chengdu was a key trade center, a transportation hub, a cultural center, and a Buddhism communications center, particularly during the Northern and Southern Dynasties(220─589), through which Buddhism found its way into the hinterland of China.
In recent years, some Buddhist relics, dating back to the period of the late Eastern Han Dynasty(25─220) to the Shu Han Kingdom (221─263) and the Three Kingdoms period (220─280), have come to light with archaeological efforts in and around the Sichuan Basin.On the list there is the Coin Tree Bronze Buddha Statue in Hejiashan of Mianyang(He, 1991), the stupa portrait bricks of Shifang Han Tomb(Xie, 1987), the Buddha statue of No.1 Mahao Cliff-tomb of Leshan(Yang, 1940), the Buddha statue of No.1 Shiziwan Cliff-tomb of Leshan(Bureau of culture heritage, 1990), the abhaya mudra(fearless) pottery figurines in Xihutang of Leshan, the Pengshan Cliff-tomb Coin Tree Potterybased Buddha Statue, the Coin Tree Bronze Buddha statue in Tujing of Zhongxian and the urnalaksana pottery figurines and pottery house models, all bearing testimony to the culture of that particular period(Sichuan management committee of cultural relics, 1985).Representing artistic characters of Gandhara and even Central Asia, these earliest Buddhism relics in Sichuan are in close proximity to the Northern Silk Road, and most of them found their way from India, Central Asia, through the Western Regions, across Qinghai and the Silk Road’s He Nan section, past the Minjiang River Valley and finally to the Chengdu Plain where they went on along the Yangtze River and spread to the southeast.Once entering Ancient Sichuan during the period from the late Eastern Han Dynasty to the Three Kingdoms period, Buddhism mixed with the emerging Taoism and soon evolved into a unique localized Buddhist culture.The Buddhism-Taoism fusion produced diverse statues including Buddha statues, Buddha-like statues and some praying-forafterlife-happiness statues that looked like but were in fact not Buddhas.①Those statues, though resembling "Buddha,” represent the cultural elements of "Queen Mother of the West" myth in Taoism.From Archeological Discoveries in Southwest China and the Chinese Civilization by Huo Wei, Bashu Book Publishing House, 2011: pp247-264.
During the early years of the Eastern JinDynasty(317–420), forced by the massive turmoil in the north of China, a large number of Buddhists chose to seek shelter in the south, thereby resulting in the thriving of Buddhism in Sichuan.Shi Dao’an, a prestigious Buddhist monk in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, for example, once led a 400-oddmonk group on a southward flight, punctuated by two attempts at detaching his fellow monks and disciples, of whom many ended up in Sichuan and some of whom won high reputations there.The most famous monks included Shi Fahe, Shi Tanyi and Shi Huichi.After them were Xian Hu, Fa Xu and especially Shi Huirui, who initiated direct Buddhism communications between Chengdu and ancient India.The authorities of Sichuan at the time held an open mind to Buddhism, for example,Mao Qu, the then prefecture governor, supported Buddhism in various substantial measures, which allowed Buddhism to quickly settle down and grow in Sichuan, attracting an increasing in-flow of famous monks for preaching and leading to the temple sprawl in Chengdu and other nearby cities.
In the end of the Western Jin Dynasty, the Hexi Corridor of the Silk Road was blocked by the invasion of the northern ethnic regimes,thereby there came into being another option of transportation to link the Western Regions with the hinterland of China—the Silk Road’s He Nan section, running past Qinghai Lake, along Longnan of Gansu to the northwest of Sichuan, then down the Minjiang River Valley into the Chengdu Plain.It was a key transportation course for both commercial trade and the spread of Buddhism.
During the Eastern Jin Dynasty and Northern and Southern Dynasties (317─589), Buddhism was widely accepted and worshiped in China, and the Silk Road’s He Nan section, now extending from Central Asia to the Western Regions, past Qinghai and Gansu, through northwestern Sichuan and Chengdu, then to southwestern China, down the Yangtze River to Nanjing and other places(Lu,2014), played an important role in the spread of Buddhism.The bumpy road witnessed numerous monks trudging on their arduous journey, blending into government delegations and trade caravans,and Chengdu was a relay station for most of them.According to historical records, Dharmamitra, a prestigious monk from Northern India, traveled a long way from India, past Qiuci, Liusha, Dunhuang and Liangzhou, finally to Sichuan in 424, bringing to Chengdu his translated versions of Buddhist Scriptures.He helped to improve Buddhism’s development in Sichuan, preaching and giving Dharma lectures in temples during his long stay in Chengdu, before he finally left for Nanjing via the Yangtze River (Shi, 1991). Another monk, Shi Zhimeng, was said to have reached Sichuan in 437,authored a travelogue in July, 439 and later died there.Jiangliangyeshe, a monk from the Western Regions, came to Sichuan in 437, preached around before he transited to Nanjing and translated a large amount of Buddhist Scriptures. In 475, the prestigious monk Shi Faxian, starting from Nanjing and then making his way from Chengdu, along the Silk Road’s He Nan section, past the Western Regions, made a pilgrimage journey through over 30 countries to India.Later, on his way back he went along the Silk Road’s He Nan section to Chengdu before he finally returned to Nanjing.This 15-year journey of faith to the west, featured Dharma lectures and spreading Buddhism, was hundreds of years earlier than the most well-known Journey to the West by Xuanzang in the Tang Dynasty (618—907). During the period of the Liu-Song Kingdom(420—479), the monk Shi Huilan also toured the Western Regions through the Silk Road’s He Nan section.He once inhabited the Chengdu Zuojun Temple and by preaching Buddhism there, became a very influential person in the local Buddhism development (Shi, 1991, p.418). During this period,apart from the three most prominent monks—Shi Faxian, Shi Huilan and Dharmamitra, the Silk Road’s He Nan section had gathered a number of other famous names including Faxian, Shi Faxu,Tan Hong, Shi Fawang, Shi Huirui, Jiangliangyeshe,Shi Zhimeng, Yasovarman Sangha, Shi Sengyin,Shi Xuanchang and Shi Mingda, who were all faithful Buddhism propagators in Chengdu, either short-term or long-term.
During the Qi and Liang Dynasties (502─589),Buddhism, adopted by the local authorities in Sichuan as a means to solidify jurisdiction, was strongly supported and widely advocated.The most famous monks with the deepest understanding about Buddha Dharma, like Fa Yuan, Shi Huilan,Shi Sengyin, Shi Fayuan, Shi Daofa, Tan Hong and Shi Zhimeng, were gathered in Chengdu, preaching Buddhism, shortening the gap of Buddhism’s development between Sichuan and other areas,and making Sichuan a national advanced area in Buddhism.Chengdu was home to various Buddhist sects then, each boasting their own specialties and writings, for example, Shi Falin was a master of Sarvastivada-vinaya, Seng Shao a master of Abhidharma, Zhou Yong the author of Three Interpretations of the Emptiness in Buddhism, Seng Lang a master of the Three Treatises, Shi Baotuan the writer of Nirvana and Saddharmapundarika Sutra praying scriptures, and Seng Min the author of Satyasiddhi-sastra.The names—Hui Shao,Jing Shao, Zhi Zang, Bao Yuan, Dao Chao and Seng Qiao —were also popular for their Buddhist lectures, especially those of Nirvana chanting.There were times when three or four Buddhist lectures were simultaneously given in Chengdu,drawing masses of listeners, and all the Buddhist activities were large in scale.Unlike depending on foreign monks in the Eastern Jin Dynasty and the period of the Liu-Song Kingdom, during the Qi and Liang Dynasties, Sichuan began to lean on the growing local monks, for example, Shi Falin and Fa Tan, who began their life as a monk in Sichuan,then studied Buddha dharma in other places before they finally returned to Chengdu as a Buddhism preacher; Shi Baoyuan and Shi Zhifang, who studied Buddhism in Nanjing, rose to fame and ended up in Chengdu spreading Buddhism.There was another highlight: the number of nuns was largely increased during this period.Sichuan not only gathered famous monks from far and wide for Buddhism preaching, but also attracted a number of monks for Buddha dharma study.
During the Chen Dynasty (557—589), Buddhism in Sichuan, based on earlier accumulation, witnessed unprecedented prosperity.Sichuan was not in the least second to other Buddhism centers of China in terms of the number of eminent monks, Buddhism activity scale and Buddhism writings.The famous book Continuation: Biographies of Eminent Monks recorded the life of about 40 eminent monks from Sichuan, who were either exotic or local.Among them the most famous would be Jn~a^nagupta from northern India, who once served as the master monk in Sichuan and a most prominent foreign translator of Buddhist scriptures.There were other foreign monks, including Shi Zhining, Wang Bao and Geng Xin.Among the predominant group of local monks there was Shi Baohai, Shi Huigong,Shi Senghuang, Shi Zhixuan and Shi Huiyuan.Buddhist academic masters abounded, including Jn~a^nagupta, who translated the Buddha Words Scripture and Conversation Between Buddha and Guanyin Bodhisattva in Saddharmapundarikasutra in Longyuan Temple, and Shi Daoji, a famousmaster of Abhidharma, who authored Notes and Commentaries about Samyuktabhidharma-hrdayasastra and eight volumes of Transcript; Huai Yuan from Zhao Ti Temple, who was not only an Abhidharma master and an influential Abhidharma propagator but also a Satyasiddhi master; and Shi Zhining, who introduced Abhidhammatthasavgaha of Yogācāra to Sichuan.Playing a big role in maintaining social stability, Buddhism was increasingly supported and promoted by the government, enjoyed further prosperity in Chengdu and Sichuan, and appealed to not only the masses but also the literati, the officials and the rich.
During the Northern and Southern Dynasties,Chengdu acted as a Buddhist communications center, through which large numbers of prominent monks either entered for preaching, or went out extending Buddhism to other parts of China,along with Buddhist goods, scriptures and statues that were produced in Chengdu.Chengdu was the transportation and cultural link between the southern and the northern part of China,contributing to the mixed character of its Buddhist culture.
The Buddhist prosperity during the Northern and Southern Dynasties was mainly reflected in the prevalence of large-scale temples and Buddhist statues.Extraordinarily exquisite, the Buddhist statues in Chengdu have a lot in common with the Yungang Grottoes from the Northern Dynasty and the Mogao Grottoes’ Buddha in Dunhuang:the Buddhas all have their hair combed into a topknot, wearing a loose gown with a wide girdle,their shawls crossing in front of the abdomen anddrooping around the knees; some Buddhas wear a coronet, a bead hanging from the very center of their necklace, the lower hems of their Buddhist garment and skirts unfolding in jagged shape around the legs; the ratio of height to head of a Buddha ranging from 5:1 to 6:1, the head, hands and feet being a bit larger.The unearthed Buddhist statues of the Liang Dynasty in Chengdu mainly adopt the local red sandstone for material, alongside a small portion of blue-stone.Red sandstone is soft for carving, and could accommodate very delicate operations, which produces exquisitelylined, flowing clothing, mostly coated with color or gold.The Buddhist statues in Chengdu created before the Qi Dynasty well preserve some exotic features—broad and thick shoulders, great height and powerful build, unlike their counterparts after the Liang Dynasty, which were apparently localized with their oblate faces, especially the crowns on the head, the pendant decorations, silk fabrics and the whole feeling of solemn beauty, all in the style of a typical local maiden.
Leshan Giant Buddha
The Buddhist statues in Chengdu from the Liang Dynasty, commonly seen standing on a double-lotus pedestal and back dropped against giant lotus petals and flying immortals, boast a wide range of subjects and Buddha combinations.The Shakya Muni Buddha is often large and round,with the Buddha covered by a cassock from the shoulders or a loosen-robe-style cassock which produces parallels of circles clinging close to the body, as if the Buddha had just emerged from the water.Some Buddhist statue combinations feature KuanIm.Some consist of the Four Serving Buddhas and their Four Disciples.Always with a round,chubby face, the Buddhas are depicted as twisting their body and raising their hips, wearing thin clothes closely attached to their body, for example,the Buddhist statues from the first year of Datong’s Reign in the Liang Dynasty, wear a cassock draping around his belly, its lower hem decorated with continuous swirls, and those from the third year of Datong’s Reign are mostly in loose, flowing robes,which look rhythmical and beautiful.All those Buddhist statues have been greatly influenced by the North Dynasty and adopted the garment pleating technique named “Cao-style Clothing Pleating that makes a statue look like it is emerging from water”(Yuan, 1991; Li, 1992) created by Cao Zhongda in the Northern Qi Dynasty (550─577).The Buddhist statues in Chengdu from the Liang Dynasty, though largely linked with and influenced by the statues of the Northern and Southern Dynasties, maintain their own characteristics.In addition, they indicate “profound Indian ties,namely Mathura Buddha statues from the Gupta Era of India, which were introduced to Chengdu through Gandhara, the Western Regions and Tuyuhun.The new style, once entering Nanjing,exerted a deep influence on the Buddhist statues of the Southern Dynasty”(Haruo Yagi, 2003). From the late Qi Dynasty to the early Liang Dynasty,the earliest sort of Han-style Buddhist garments appeared in Chengdu—a loose gown with a wide girdle and double drooping collars.It soon gained popularity in Sichuan and spread to the whole country, becoming the major kind of Buddhist garments in China after the Liang Dynasty.All this is a process of Buddhist Chinization.And the fact that the first signs of the process appeared in Chengdu signifies that the west of Sichuan, with Chengdu as the center, played a very important role in the eastward spread of Buddhism and the Buddhist Chinization.
During the Northern and Southern dynasties,Chengdu became another Buddhist communications center in the hinterland of China after Luoyang and Nanjing.And Buddhism has, to a large extent,shaped Chengdu’s urban spatial pattern, culture,and its material, spiritual and cultural life.
Thousands of years of history has proved that Chengdu’s geographical inaccessibility was actually an advantage in disguise, for it led to openness, by which generations after generations were spurred to fight their way out of the secluded Sichuan Basin and finally made Chengdu the nexus of the Northern Silk Road, the Southern Silk Road, the Yangtze River Economic Belt and the Maritime Silk Road, and an opening-up hub for China during the Han and Tang dynasties.Now it is necessary for Chengdu to inherit and develop its historical and cultural glory, to transform its development ideologies, to make the best of its geographical advantages during the significant Belt and Road Initiative, to link deeper into the initiative in a comprehensive and multi-layered manner with targeted top-down plans, and to use the initiative as a new platform to help build Chengdu into a national central city and a world famous cultural city.
(Translator: Wu Lingwei;Editor: Yan Yuting, Xiong Xianwei)
This paper has been translated and reprinted with the permission of Forum on Chinese Culture, No.4,2017.
Contemporary Social Sciences2017年5期