Constable, Steven; Srnka, Leonard J

Deep-water fan systems and petroleum resources on the northern slope of the South China Sea

Pang, X; Yang, SK; Zhu, M; et al.

深海探測

·編者按·

從1960年代開始，發(fā)達國家率先向深海大洋進軍，深海探測技術(shù)得以迅速發(fā)展。調(diào)查船、鉆探船（平臺）、各類探測儀器、裝備，以及深潛器，水下機器人，取樣設(shè)備，海底淺、中、深鉆機和海底監(jiān)測網(wǎng)等相繼問世，探測廣度和深度不斷刷新。在深海極端環(huán)境、地震機理、深海生物和礦產(chǎn)資源，以及海底深部物質(zhì)與結(jié)構(gòu)等領(lǐng)域取得一系列重大進展和新發(fā)現(xiàn)。深海蘊藏著地球上未被認知和開發(fā)的寶藏，挺進深海是我國科技戰(zhàn)略布局的重要一環(huán)。近 20年來，中國在深水油氣勘探、天然氣水合物探查、大洋礦產(chǎn)資源勘查和深海運載技術(shù)研究開發(fā)領(lǐng)域取得若干重大進展、突破和新發(fā)現(xiàn)，在深海技術(shù)及其相關(guān)探測儀器裝備方面取得一系列重要成果。2015—2016年，“大洋一號”“海洋六號”“向陽紅09號”“向陽紅10號”“海洋22號”和“蛟龍?zhí)枴眻?zhí)行了大洋第31～37、39～40共9個航次，先后在西南印度洋、東北太平洋、西太平洋、和雅浦海溝開展礦產(chǎn)資源、稀土資源、環(huán)境及生物多樣性調(diào)查評價，取得一系列重要成果。2016年，我國深?？茖W(xué)和技術(shù)取得了里程碑式的進展。在中國科學(xué)院“海斗深淵前沿科技問題研究與攻關(guān)”戰(zhàn)略性先導(dǎo)科技專項的支持下，由國際深?？萍碱I(lǐng)域知名專家丁抗博士任首席專家，“探索一號”科考船在馬里亞納海溝挑戰(zhàn)者深淵完成了我國第一次萬米深淵裝備海試及科考航次（TS01-01航次），共完成各類作業(yè)任務(wù)84項。目前，各項研究正在緊張有序地進行中。

本專題得到莫恭政研究員（國土資源部中國地質(zhì)調(diào)查局青島海洋地質(zhì)研究所）、謝強研究員（深?？茖W(xué)與工程研究所）、鄭軍衛(wèi)研究員（中國科學(xué)院蘭州文獻情報中心）的大力支持。

·熱點數(shù)據(jù)排行·

截至 2016年 11月 8日，中國知網(wǎng)（CNKI）和Web of Science（WOS）的數(shù)據(jù)報告顯示，以“深海技術(shù)（deep sea technology）”“深海探測（deep sea exploration）”為詞條可以檢索到的期刊文獻分別為688條與 1520條，本專題將相關(guān)數(shù)據(jù)按照：研究機構(gòu)發(fā)文數(shù)、作者發(fā)文數(shù)、期刊發(fā)文數(shù)、被引用頻次進行排行，結(jié)果如下。

研究機構(gòu)發(fā)文數(shù)量排名（CNKI）

研究機構(gòu)發(fā)文數(shù)量排名（WOS）

作者發(fā)文數(shù)量排名（CNKI）

作者發(fā)文數(shù)量排名（WOS）

作者發(fā)文數(shù)量排名（CNKI）（續(xù)表）

作者發(fā)文數(shù)量排名（WOS）（續(xù)表）

期刊發(fā)文數(shù)量排名（CNKI）

期刊發(fā)文數(shù)量排名（WOS）

根據(jù)中國知網(wǎng)（CNKI）數(shù)據(jù)報告，以“深海技術(shù)（deep sea technology）”“深海探測（deep sea exploration）”為詞條可以檢索到的高被引論文排行結(jié)果如下。

國內(nèi)數(shù)據(jù)庫高被引論文排行

根據(jù)Web of Science統(tǒng)計數(shù)據(jù)，以“深海技術(shù)（deep sea technology）”“深海探測（deep sea exploration）”為詞條可以檢索到的高被引論文排行結(jié)果如下。

國外數(shù)據(jù)庫高被引論文排行

·經(jīng)典文獻推薦·

基于 Web of Science檢索結(jié)果，利用Histcite軟件選取 LCS（Local Citation Score，本地引用次數(shù)）TOP50文獻作為節(jié)點進行分析，得到本領(lǐng)域推薦的經(jīng)典文獻如下。

本領(lǐng)域經(jīng)典文獻

來源出版物：Geophysics, 1998, 63(3): 816-825

An introduction to marine controlled-source electromagnetic methods for hydrocarbon exploration

Constable, Steven; Srnka, Leonard J

Abstract:Early development of marine electromagnetic methods, dating back about 80 years, was driven largely by defense/military applications, and use for these purposes continues to this day. Deepwater, frequency-domain, electric dipole-dipole, controlled-source electromagnetic (CSEM) methods arose from academic studies of the oceanic lithosphere in the 1980s, and although the hydrocarbon exploration industry was aware of this work, the shallowwater environments being explored at that time were not ideally suited for its use. Low oil prices and increasingly successful results from 3D seismic methods further discouraged investment in costly alternative geophysical data streams. These circumstances changed in the late 1990s, when both Statoil and ExxonMobil began modeling studies and field trials of CSEM surveying in deep water (around 1000 m or deeper), specifically for characterizing the resistivity of previously identified drilling targets. Trials offshore Angola in 2000-2002 by both thesecompanies showed that CSEM data can successfully be used to evaluate reservoir resistivity for targets as deep as several thousand meters. Both companies leveraged instrumentation and expertise from the academic community to make swift progress. The resulting rapid growth in the use of marine EM methods for exploration has created a demand for trained personnel that is difficult to meet; nevertheless, at this time, CSEM data represent a commercial commodity within the exploration business, and acquisition services are offered by three companies. The ability to determine the resistivity of deep drilling targets from the seafloor may well make marine CSEM the most important geophysical technique to emerge since 3D reflection seismology.

來源出版物：Geophysics, 2007, 72(2): 3-12

Deep-water fan systems and petroleum resources on the northern slope of the South China Sea

Pang, X; Yang, SK; Zhu, M; et al.

Abstract:The shallow shelf delta/strand arenaceous-pelitic deposit region in the north of the Pearl River mouth basin, sitting on the northern continental shelf of the South China Sea, has already become an important oil production base in China. Recent researched has revealed that a great deal of deep-water fans of great petroleum potentiality exist on the Baiyun deep-water slope below the big paleo Pearl River and its large delta. Based on a mass of exploration wells and 2-D seismic data of the shallow shelf region, a interpretation of sequence stratigraphy confirmed the existence of deep-water fans. The cyclic failing of sea level, abundant detrital matter from the paleo Pearl River and the persistent geothermal subsidence in the Baiyun sag are the three prerequisites for the formation and development of deep-water fans. There are many in common between the deep-water shelf depositional system of the northern South China Sea and the exploration hotspots region on the two banks of the Atlantic. For example, both are located on passive continent margins, and persistent secular thermal subsidence and large paleo rivers have supplied abundant material sources and organic matter. More recently, the discovery of the big gas pool on the northern slope of the Baiyun sag confirms that the Lower Tertiary lacustrine facies in the Baiyun sag has a great potentiality of source rocks. The fans overlying the Lower Tertiary source rocks should become the main exploration areas for oil and gas resources.

northern deep-water slope of the South China Sea; deep-water fan; hydrocarbon resources

來源出版物：ACTA Geologica Sinica-English Edition, 2004, 78(3): 626-631

Deep-marine tidal bottom currents and their reworked sands in modern and ancient submarine canyons

Shanmugam, G

Abstract:Submarine canyons provide a unique setting for tidal processes to operate from shallow-marine to deepmarine environments. In modern canyons, current-meter measurements at varying water depths (46-4200 m) show a close correlation between the timing of up-and downcanyon currents and the timing of semi-diurnal tides. These tidal bottom currents in submarine canyons commonly attain maximum velocities of 25-50 cm/s. Based on core and outcrop studies of modem and ancient deep-marine deposits, it is proposed here that sand-mud rhythmites, double mud layers, climbing ripples, mud-draped ripples, alternation of parallel and cross-laminae, sigmoidal cross-bedding with mud drapes, internal erosional surfaces, lenticular bedding, and flaser bedding can be used to interpret deposits of deep-marine tidal currents. This approach is an alternative to the conventional approach in which most deep-water traction structures (e.g. climbing ripples and cross-bedding) would be attributed to deposition from turbidity currents. Underwater photographs show active mass flows (i.e. slides, slumps, grain flows, and debris flows) in modern canyons. Box cores taken from modem submarine canyons (e.g. La Jolla, California) and conventional cores and outcrops of ancient canyon-fill facies (Oua lboe, Pliocene, Nigeria and the Annot Sandstone, Eocene-Oligocene, SE France) contain deposits of both tidal processes and mass flows. This facies association in the rock record can be used as a criterion for recognizing submarine canyon settings. In a channel-mouth environment, deep-marine tidal deposits are likely to develop elongate bars that are aligned parallel to the channel axis within the channel, whereas turbidites are more likely to develop depositional lobes that are aligned perpendicular to channel axis. Turbidite depositional lobes are much larger than the channel width, whereas tidal sand bars are much smaller than the channel width. Therefore, the wrong use of a turbidite lobe model with sheet geometry in lieu of a tidal bar model with bar geometry will result in an unrealistic overestimation of sandstone reservoirs in deep-water exploration.

關(guān)鍵詞：submarine canyons; tidal bottom currents; double mud layers; turbidity currents

來源出版物：Marine and Petroleum Geology, 2003, 20(5): 471-491

50 years of the turbidite paradigm (1950s-1990s): Deep-water processes and facies models: A critical perspective

Shanmugam, G

Abstract:Under the prevailing turbidite paradigm, the term ‘turbidite’ (i.e., deposits of turbidity currents with Newtonian rheology and turbulent state) is used very loosely and is commonly applied to deposits of debris flows with plastic rheology and laminar state. For example, because ‘high-density turbidity currents’ are defined on the basis of three different concepts (i.e., how density, grain size, and driving force), there are no consistent criteria for recognition of their deposits. As a result, deep-water massive sands of debris-flow origin are routinely misinterpreted as high-density turbidites. The concept of waxing flow as a type of turbidity current is problematic because waxing flows are defined on the basis of velocity, not on fluid rheology and flow state. The waxing-flow concept allows inversely graded sands to be misinterpreted as turbidites. Perhaps, the most problematic issue is the use of alluvial channel traction bed forms observed in flume experiments as the analog for the five divisions of the Bouma Sequence (i.e., classic turbidites deposited from suspension). This is because flume experiments were conducted under equilibrium flow conditions, whereas natural turbidity currents deposit sediment under disequilibrium waning flow conditions. This and other problems of deep-water processes and facies models are addressed in this paper from the author’s personal perspective. Classification of sediment-gravity flows into Newtonian flows (e.g., turbidity currents) and plastic flows (e.g., debris flows), based on fluid rheology and flow state, is a meaningful and practical approach. Although popular deepwater facies models are based on transport mechanisms, there are no standard criteria in the depositional record to reliably interpret transport mechanisms. According to existing turbidite-facies models, an ideal turbidite bed, which has normal grading, with gravel-to mud-size particles should contain a total of 16 divisions. However, no one has ever documented a complete turbidite bed with 16 divisions in modern or ancient deposits. Recognition of units deposited by deep-water bottom currents (also referred to as contour currents) is difficult. Traction structures are good indicators of bottom-current reworking, but distinguishing deposits of bottom currents from deposits of overbanking turbidity currents is difficult even though it has important implications for developing depositional models for hydrocarbon exploration and production. I consider sandy debris flows to be the dominant process responsible for transporting and depositing sands in the deep sea. Experiments on sandy debris flows suggest that low clay content (as little as 1%) is sufficient to provide the strength necessary for sandy debris flows. Deposits of experimental sandy debris hows are characterized by massive sand, sharp upper contacts, floating clasts, inverse grading, normal grading with clasts, and water-escape structures. As a counterpart to turbidite-dominated fan models suited for basinal settings, a slope model is proposed that is a debris-flow dominated setting with both nonchannelized and channelized systems. Contrary to popular belief, deposits of sandy debris flows can be thick, areally extensive, clean (i.e., mud poor), and excellent reservoirs. High-frequency flows tend to develop amalgamated debris-flow deposits with lateral connectivity and sheetlike geometry. Submarine-fan models with turbidite channels and lobes have controlled our thinking for nearly 35 years, but I consider that these models are obsolete. The suprafan lobe concept was influential in both sedimentologic and sequeace-stratigraphic circles because it provided a basis for constructing a general fan model and for linking mounded seismic facies with sheet-like turbidite sandstones. However, this concept recently was abandoned by its proponent, which has left the popular sequence- stratigraphic fan models with a shaky foundation. A paradigm shift is in order in the 21st century. This shift should involve the realization that thick deep-water massive sands are deposits of debris flows, not ‘high-density turbidites’. However, there are no standard vertical facies models that can be applied universally for either turbidites, contourites, or sandy debris flows. Science is a journey, whereas facies models terminate that journey and become the final destination.

關(guān)鍵詞：turbidity currents; turbidite paradigm; sandy debris flows; submarine-fan models

來源出版物：Marine and Petroleum Geology, 2000, 17(2): 285-342

Marine magnetotellurics for petroleum exploration Part I: A sea-floor equipment system

Constable, SC; Orange, AS; Hoversten, GM; et al.

Induction in electrically conductive seawater attenuates the magnetotelluric (MT) fields and, coupled with a minimum around 1 Hz in the natural magnetic field spectrum, leads to a dramatic loss of electric and magnetic field power on the sea floor at periods shorter than 1000 s, For this reason the marine MT method traditionally has been used only at periods of 103to 105s to probe deep mantle structure; rarely does a sea-floor MT response extend to a 100-s period. To be useful for mapping continental shelf structure at depths relevant to petroleum exploration, however, MT measurements need to be made at periods between 1 and 1000 s. This can be accomplished using ac-coupled sensors, induction coils for the magnetic field, and an electric field amplifier developed for marine controlled-source applications. The electrically quiet sea floor allows the attenuated electric field to be amplified greatly before recording; in deep (l km) water, motional noise in magnetic field sensors appears not to be a problem. In shallower water, motional noise does degrade the magnetic measurement, but sea-floor magnetic records can be replaced by land recordings, producing an effective sea-surface MT response. Field trials of such equipment in l-km-deep water produced good-quality MT responses at periods of 3 to 1000 s; in shallower water, responses to a few hertz can be obtained. Using an autonomous sea-floor data logger developed at Scripps Institution of Oceanography, marine surveys of 50 to 100 sites are feasible.